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UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


THE  COMPETENCY  OF  FIFTY  COLLEGE 

STUDENTS 

(A  DIAGNOSTIC  STUDY) 


BY 
KARL  GREENWOOD  MILLER 


A  THESIS 

PRESENTED  TO  THE  FACULTY  OF  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  IN  PARTIAL 

FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE  DEGREE 

OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY  IN  PSYCHOLOGY 


PHILADELPHIA 
1922 


UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


THE  COMPETENCY  OF  FIFTY  COLLEGE 

STUDENTS 

(A  DIAGNOSTIC  STUDY) 


BY 
KARL  GREENWOODUVtlLLER 


■v 


A  THESIS 

PRESENTED  TO  THE  FACULTY  OF  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  IN  PARTIAL 

FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE  DEGREE 

OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY  IN  PSYCHOLOGY 


PHILADELPHIA 
1922 


^ 


i    2 


ix^t 


THE  COMPETENCY  OF  FIFTY  COLLEGE  STUDENTS. 

(A  Diagnostic  Study.) 
NOTE 

This  Thesis  will  be  found  reprinted  as  No.   VIII  of 
Experimental  Studies  in  Psychology  and  Pedagogy 

Introduction. 

No  task  more  worthy  of  attention  confronts  the  psychologist 
today  than  the  scientific  study  of  the  college  student  by  means  of 
mental  tests. 

Psychological  tests  were  first  employed  in  the  examination  and 
segregation  of  the  mentally  feeble.  A  large  number  of  clinics  con- 
nected with  modern  school  systems,  hospitals,  or  juvenile  courts 
have  found  these  tests  of  service  in  detecting  mental  subnormality. 
It  has  only  been  in  the  last  decade,  however,  that  the  possibilities 
of  the  psychological  examination  of  "normal"  individuals  have  been 
recognized,  and  rapid  advances  are  now  being  made  in  this  field. 
The  success  with  which  mental  tests  were  used  in  the  classification 
and  stratification  of  the  great  mass  of  men  who  formed  our  National 
Army  probably  did  more  to  bring  about  a  general  acceptance  of  the 
method  and  principles  involved  than  would  have  resulted  from 
many  years  of  experimentation  in  peace  times.  Today,  psychological 
tests  are  used  not  only  in  the  field  of  education  but  also  form  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  selective  and  administrative  machinery  of  many 
large  industrial  organizations.  The  present  vogue  of  the  mental 
test  carries  with  it  one  real  danger  in  that  the  uninitiated  are  likely 
to  demand  more  of  the  psychologist  than  he  can  give. 

Without  doubt  it  is  now  possible  to  say,  as  a  result  of  a  psycho- 
logical examination,  that  one  individual  possesses  too  little  mentality 
to  admit  of  his  being  a  self-supporting  member  of  society,  that 
another  can  be  trained  to  perform  a  simple  task  satisfactorily,  that 
a  third  has  ability  which  will  enable  him  to  fill  a  place  in  the  great 
middle  class,  while  still  another  has  intellectual  endowments  which 
should  lead  him  into  the  fields  of  higher  education  and  professional 
activity.  These  broad  classifications  can  be  made  through  the 
employment  of  many  and  various  tests  which  have  been  carefully 
devised  and  scientifically  standardized.  With  the  concept  of  differing 
levels  of  general  intelligence  fairly  well  developed  the  psychologist 
now  faces  the  task  of  classifying  individuals.  When  the  attempt  is 
made  not  only  to  ascertain  the  general  performance  level  but  also  to 
determine  for  what  occupation  the  specific  abilities  of  the  individual 
best  fits  him,  the  difficulty  of  the  problem  is  tremendously  increased. 
Shall  the  man  of  small  competency  be  a  ditch-digger  or  a  stevedore? 

(3)  ,;>. 


-     - 

4 

Is  the  citizen  of  mediocre  ability  best  qualified  to  follow  the  vocation 
of  motorman,  mechanic  or  clerk?  Should  the  college  student  be 
guided  into  industry,  law  or  teaching? 

These  questions  imply  that  the  psychologist  must  also  function 
as  a  vocational  adviser,  and  while  this  obligation  may  not  at  present 
be  generally  accepted,  the  implication  is  nevertheless  warranted. 
Mental  tests,  if  they  are  to  be  of  value  to  society,  must  lead  to 
prognoses  as  well  as  to  diagnoses  and  must  at  least  offer  to  the  indi- 
vidual tested  some  information  which  may  be  useful  in  the  attain- 
ment of  greater  personal  and  social  efficiency.  In  much  the  same 
manner  as  the  employment  manager  of  today  places  the  applicant 
in  some  particular  position  in  his  organization,  so  the  psychologist 
of  the  future  may  find  it  possible  to  direct  each  member  of  society 
to  the  one  vocation  which  will  best  utilize  his  peculiar  qualifications. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  that  the  problem  of  differen- 
tiation becomes  increasingly  complex  as  the  higher  levels  of  intellec- 
tual organization  are  approached.  The  idiot  may  be  consigned  to 
custodial  care  with  but  small  probability  of  error.  The  stevedore, 
the  scavenger,  and  the  ditch-digger  gravitate  to  their  respective 
occupations  without  perceptible  friction.  The  "common  people" 
present  a  more  difficult  problem  in  view  of  their  higher  level  of 
performance  and  greater  complexity  of  response,  but  even  here  note- 
worthy advances  have  been  made  in  recent  years  through  the  intro- 
duction of  vocational  guidance  and  the  application  of  psychological 
principles  to  industrial  management.  Although  investigation  of 
this  character  has  hardly  passed  beyond  the  experimental  stage,  a 
beginning  has  nevertheless  been  made,  and  remarkable  developments 
during  the  next  decade  may  be  confidently  anticipated. 

The  task  of  differentiating  the  particular  abilities  required  of 
the  successful  plumber,  mechanic,  clerk,  motorman,  and  telephone 
operator — to  mention  only  a  few  of  the  almost  countless  range  of 
occupations — is  doubtless  a  difficult  one,  but  it  hardly  approaches  the 
complexity  of  the  problem  presented  in  the  guidance  of  individuals  of 
greater  intelligence  and  higher  intellectual  organization  to  the  one 
vocation  for  which  each  is  best  fitted.  While  interest,  personality, 
and  various  external  circumstances  can  not  be  disregarded  as  impor- 
tant factors  in  the  selection  of  the  life  work,  the  concern  of  the 
psychologist  lies  primarily  in  the  determination  of  the  specific 
abilities  requisite  to  each  type  of  professional  activity,  and  in  the 
scientific  evaluation  of  the  particular  abilities  possessed  by  each 
individual.  It  is  with  the  latter  phase  of  the  problem  that  this  inves- 
tigation will  deal,  the  interest  being  centered  on  the  college  student, 
who,  despite  his  many  shortcomings,  must  be  regarded  as  representa- 
tive of  the  highest  intellectual  type  of  young  manhood  in  the  country. 


Historical. 

The  attempt  to  appraise  the  undergraduate  by  means  of  mental 
tests  must  not  be  considered  a  new  departure  in  the  field  of  psy- 
chology. The  credit  for  the  first  scientific  study  of  the  American 
college  student  goes  to  J.  McKean  Cattell.  Stimulated  by  his 
researches  in  the  anthropometric  laboratory  of  Francis  Galton,  he 
inaugurated  in  1887  a  series  of  experiments  with  undergraduates  at 
Harvard  University,  which  investigation  he  continued  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  and  Bryn  Mawr  College  in  1888  and  1889, 
and  in  the  following  years  at  Columbia  University.  The  report 
entitled,  "  Physical  and  Mental  Measurements  of  the  Students  of 
Columbia  University",  which  appeared  in  the  Psychological  Review 
for  November,  1896,  and  in  which  Professor  Cattell  collaborated 
with  Dr.  Livingston  Farrand,  was  probably  the  first  publication  of 
the  results  of  a  systematic  study  of  the  mental  status  of  the  college 
student.  This  report  is  of  peculiar  interest  today  not  only  because 
of  its  scope,  but  also  in  view  of  the  surprising  number  of  mental  and 
physical  tests  actually  employed  or  suggested  at  that  time  which 
now  constitute  the  accepted  instruments  of  every  clinical  psychologist. 
While  the  purpose  of  the  investigation  was  necessarily  the  establish- 
ment of  norms  by  the  statistical  treatment  of  the  test  results  of  one 
hundred  students,  and  the  aim  of  the  present  study  is  rather  the 
observation  of  individual  variation,  it  will  nevertheless  be  of  interest 
to  indicate  briefly  the  character  of  the  information  recorded  by 
Cattell.  Anthropometric  measurements  such  as  height,  weight,  and 
cephalic  diameters  were  noted,  and  in  addition  such  physiognomic 
characters  as  the  color  of  hair  and  eyes,  and  the  size  and  shape  of 
ears.  In  addition,  psychophysical  determinations  of  visual  and 
auditory  acuity,  sensitivity  to  pain,  and  various  types  of  reaction 
time  were  made,  as  well  as  tests  of  a  more  strictly  psychological 
nature  which  included  memory  of  drawn  lines,  memory  of  numbers 
heard,  cancellation  test,  color  preference,  types  of  imagery,  and 
others. 

The  investigation  under  consideration  was  carried  on  during 
the  academic  years  of  1894-95  and  1895-96,  and  it  is  of  interest  to 
note  that  the  results  were  published  so  as  to  be  of  assistance  to  a 
committee  appointed  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  American  Psy- 
chological Association  held  at  Philadelphia  in  December,  1895,  to 
consider  the  feasibility  of  co-operation  among  the  various  psycho- 
logical laboratories  in  the  collection  of  mental  and  physical  statistics. 
This  "Committee  on  Mental  and  Physical  Tests",  which  consisted 
of  Professors  Cattell,  Baldwin,  Jastrow,  Sanford,  and  Witmer,  may 
well  be  said  to  have  laid  the  foundation  for  all  subsequent  develop- 


6 

ments  in  the  realm  of  psychological  tests  in  its  report  to  the  Psy- 
chological Association  at  the  meeting  held  in  Boston  in  1896.  This 
report  may  be  found  in  the  Psychological  Review  of  March  of  the 
following  year. 

Having  thus  briefly  indicated  the  inception  of  the  present  field 
of  investigation,  it  would  be  a  thankless  task  to  trace  its  history  down 
to  the  present  moment  in  any  adequate  manner.  Studies  of  this 
character  have  been  carried  on  in  every  psychological  laboratory 
connected  with  a  college  or  university,  and  a  complete  bibliography 
of  the  reports  on  the  subject  would  cover  many  pages.  It  will  be 
well,  however,  to  mention  a  few  of  the  more  important  investigations 
which  have  a  direct  bearing  on  the  present  problem,  in  so  far  as  it 
concerns  the  correlation  of  test  results  with  academic  standing. 
Wissler  (1)  correlated  the  results  published  by  Cattell  and  Farrand, 
to  which  reference  has  been  made  above,  with  the  university  grades 
assigned  to  the  hundred  students  under  consideration.  Calfee  (2) 
has  reported  on  "Four  General  Intelligence  Tests"  given  to  approx- 
imately one  hundred  students  at  the  University  of  Texas.  Similar 
investigations  have  been  made  by  Rowland  and  Lowden  (3)  at 
Reed  College,  Waugh  (4)  at  Beloit  College,  and  by  Kitson  (5)  at  the 
University  of  Chicago.  The  latter  study  is  particularly  worthy  of 
note  in  that  a  very  careful  and  intensive  examination  of  forty  students 
was  made.  King  and  McCrory  (6)  report  the  results  of  tests  on 
five  hundred  freshmen  at  the  University  of  Iowa,  Caldwell  (7)  has 
correlated  the  Intelligence  Quotient  of  approximately  one  hundred 
students  at  Randolph-Macon  Woman's  College,  as  determined  by 
the  Adult  Tests  of  the  Stanford  Revision,  with  college  grades,  and 
Rogers  (8)  gives  interesting  results  of  her  investigation  at  Goucher 
College.  In  the  reports  mentioned  above,  Kitson  and  Caldwell  also 
record  correlations  between  test  results  and  estimated  intelligence, 
which  will  be  referred  to  later  in  this  discussion.  Incomplete  as  is 
the  preceding  sketch,  it  nevertheless  gives  some  indication  of  the 
wide-spread  interest  in  the  application  of  mental  tests  to  the  college 
student.  In  this  connection  it  will  likewise  be  well  to  refer  to  the 
comparatively  recent  development  in  the  field  of  psychological  en- 
trance examinations,-  which  are  now  demonstrating  their  practi- 
cability in  a  number  of  the  larger  universities,  and  which  constitute 
a  further  ramification  of  the  same  problem. 

Experimental  Conditions. 

Stated  briefly,  the  aim  of  the  present  study  is  to  examine  certain 
data  which  have  been  collected  relative  to  each  member  of  the  class 
in  elementary  psychology  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  during 


the  academic  year  1919-20.  This  information  consists  of  the  score 
obtained  in  a  "general  intelligence  examination",  the  results  of  a 
series  of  psychological  tests,  a  rating  on  estimated  competency,  and 
a  rating  based  on  the  academic  standing  of  the  individual  as  de- 
termined by  the  final  grades  received  in  all  courses  completed  at  the 
University.  The  treatment  of  results  will  be  concerned  with  the 
examination  of  correlations  existing  between  the  various  ratings  under 
consideration,  and  with  the  scrutiny  of  the  individual  record  with  a 
view  to  reaching,  if  possible,  some  conclusions  which  might  be  of 
assistance  to  the  student  in  the  direction  of  his  intellectual 
development. 

The  investigation  differs  from  many  which  have  preceded  it,  in 
that  the  psychological  tests,  with  one  exception,  were  given  as  a 
part  of  the  ordinary  class  instruction  and  therefore  not  primarily 
as  tests.  The  elementary  work  in  psychology  consists  of  two  courses 
known  as  Psychology  1  and  2,  each  requiring  five  hours  of  class 
attendance  and  continuing  throughout  one  semester.  Since  credit 
in  Psychology  1  is  prerequisite  to  admission  into  Psychology  2, 
the  two  courses  may  be  considered  as  a  single  introductory  course 
lasting  through  the  full  academic  year.  Of  the  five  hours  of  class 
attendance  per  week,  only  one  hour  is  occupied  by  a  formal  lecture, 
the  remaining  four  hours  being  devoted  to  laboratory  work.  During 
the  first  semester  a  number  of  mental  tests  are  given  as  a  part  of  the 
laboratory  work  and  with  the  purpose  of  graphically  demonstrating 
the  various  factors  which  function  in  the  formation  and  development 
of  the  intellect.  It  is  believed  that  this  method  enables  the  student 
better  to  understand  and  appreciate  the  particular  ability  or  men- 
tal process  under  discussion.  It  is  not  claimed,  therefore,  that  the 
series  of  tests  employed  would  necessarily  have  been  chosen  had  the 
purpose  been  the  psychological  examination  and  diagnosis  of  the 
individual  to  the  exclusion  of  other  considerations.  However,  the 
tests  unquestionably  provide  a  very  satisfactory  framework  upon 
which  to  build  a  logical  presentation  of  systematic  psychology  as 
well  as  offering  a  medium  for  the  demonstration  of  fundamental 
psychological  processes.  In  addition,  the  tests  are  extremely  valuable 
to  the  student,  in  that  they  enable  him  to  determine  his  peculiar 
mental  assets  and  liabilities  through  a  comparison  of  his  individual 
results  with  accepted  standards  or  class  distributions. 

Since  the  tests  under  consideration  were  given  as  a  part  of  the 
usual  classroom  procedure,  the  scientifically  controlled  conditions 
which  are  generally  regarded  as  indispensable  to  a  psychological 
investigation  of  this  character  were  for  the  most  part  lacking.  As 
the  class  in  Psychology  1  numbered  more  than  two  hundred  students, 


8 

the  laboratory  work  was  conducted  in  three  sections  with  an  average 
enrollment  of  approximately  seventy.  These  three  sections  all  met 
in  the  same  room,  one  being  held  at  eight-thirty  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing, another  at  two  in  the  afternoon,  and  the  third  at  three  o'clock 
on  a  different  afternoon.  While  the  time  of  meeting  was  constant 
for  each  section,  the  variation  in  hour  possibly  affected  the  com- 
parability of  section  results.  With  such  a  large  number  of  students 
in  a  laboratory  class,  some  were  necessarily  seated  at  a  greater 
distance  from  the  instructor  than  others  and  in  addition  a  few  were 
near  windows  which  may  have  provided  distraction  of  one  kind  or 
another.  In  some  cases,  the  same  test  was  given  to  the  three  sections 
by  different  experimenters,  and  although  the  attempt  was  made  to 
adhere  as  closely  as  conditions  would  permit  to  the  standard  pro- 
cedure, this  variant  may  have  affected  the  results  to  some  extent. 
In  summary,  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  time  of  meeting  of  the  different 
sections,  in  the  seating  arrangement  of  the  classroom,  and  in  the 
identity  of  the  experimenter  may  be  considered  factors  which  expose 
this  investigation  to  criticism  as  being  unscientifically  conceived  and 
prosecuted. 

The  comparative  absence  of  controlled  experimental  conditions, 
however,  cannot  be  said  to  invalidate  the  results.  It  is  an  open 
question  whether  the  environment  imposed  upon  a  subject  by 
scientifically  controlled  conditions  elicits  a  more  representative  sam- 
ple of  behavior  than  that  produced  under  less  artificial  circumstances. 
Is  the  psychologist  more  interested  in  the  reaction  of  a  subject  who 
has  been  isolated  in  a  sound-proof  cabinet  with  a  screen  before  his 
eyes  to  eliminate  distracting  visual  stimuli,  or  in  the  behavior  of  the 
same  individual  as  displayed  in  natural  association  with  his  fellows? 
For  some,  the  classroom  would  provide  as  unnatural  an  environment 
as  any  that  the  experimentalist  might  impose,  but  for  a  group  of 
university  students  no  more  satisfactory  and  less  distracting  atmos- 
phere could  be  selected  than  that  of  the  recitation  hall  or  laboratory. 
It  is  contended,  therefore,  that  the  experimental  results  here 
presented  provide  an  index  of  the  mental  status  of  the  college 
student  as  reliable  as  any  that  might  have  been  obtained  under 
other  conditions. 

Having  thus  disposed  in  a  somewhat  arbitrary  manner  of  any 
criticisms  which  might  be  voiced  against  the  general  procedure  fol- 
lowed in  this  investigation,  it  will  be  well  to  consider  the  treatment 
of  the  data  collected  before  undertaking  a  description  of  the  specific 
tests  employed.  As  has  been  indicated,  the  information  available 
concerning  each  member  of  the  group  here  studied  consists  chiefly 
of  the  results  of  a  series  of  mental  tests  and  the  academic  record  of 


9 

the  student  as  displayed  in  his  college  grades.  The  problem  of 
devising  some  statistical  method  by  which  the  various  scores  and 
grades  may  be  made  easily  comparable  is  immediately  encountered. 
For  example,  a  member  of  the  class  might  have  obtained  a  score  of 
131  in  the  general  intelligence  examination,  a  time  rating  of  forty- 
three  seconds  in  a  mechanical  test,  and  he  may  have  an  audito- 
graphic  memory  span  of  eight  digits  as  well  as  a  number  of  other 
test  results.  In  addition,  his  college  record  may  show  that  he  has 
received  the  highest  grade  in  10  per  cent  of  his  academic  work,  a 
passing  grade  in  70  per  cent,  and  that  he  failed  in  the  remainder  of 
his  courses.  The  necessity  of  reducing  these  various  values  to  some 
common  denominator  so  as  to  render  them  comparable  is  evident. 

Perhaps  the  most  natural  procedure  would  have  been  to  obtain 
arithmetical  averages  of  the  results  of  each  test  and  rate  the  indi- 
vidual performance  in  terms  of  its  variation  from  the  average.  After 
determining  a  rank  order  in  academic  standing  it  would  then  have 
been  possible  to  calculate  the  correlations  and  intercorrelations 
desired.  Such  a  method  is  valuable  in  the  examination  and  stand- 
ardization of  tests,  but  it  has  little  to  offer  when  the  interest  is 
chiefly  centered  in  the  study  of  the  individual  rather  than  the  tests, 
and  it  has  a  tendency  to  obscure  significant  personal  variations  under 
a  mass  of  figures.  Indeed,  it  is  probable  that  correlation  as  a  sta- 
tistical method  has  been  carried  to  extremes  in  recent  psychological 
investigations.  When  the  results  of  two  mental  tests  show  a  high 
degree  of  correlation,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  they  tap 
two  abilities  which  are  mutually  dependent,  but  rather  that  the 
tests  have  called  the  same  ability  or  group  of  abilities  into  play. 
Conversely,  a  lack  of  significant  correlation  may  show  either  that 
one  of  the  tests  is  unreliable  or  that  the  results  are  not  dependent  on 
some  common  factor.  If  college  psychological  tests  are  designed  to 
call  into  play  the  same  abilities  which  function  in  college  grades, 
such  tests  are  useless  unless  a  high  degree  of  correlation  with  academic 
standing  can  be  demonstrated.  On  the  other  hand,  the  absence  of 
such  correlation  does  not  show  the  tests  to  be  devoid  of  significance, 
but  merely  that  they  measure  other  abilities  or  factors  than  are 
predominant  in  the  attainment  of  grades.  Further,  if  it  be  admitted 
that  individual  competency  is  the  algebraic  sum  of  the  various 
specific  abilities  and  disabilities,  then  the  ideal  series  of  psychological 
tests — which  would  include  a  different  test  for  each  special  ability — 
would  show  no  significant  intercorrelations  for  individuals  at  the 
same  level  of  general  intelligence. 

The  purpose  here,  therefore,  is  to  present  the  material  in  such 
form  as  best  to  facilitate  the  scrutiny  of  the  individual  record,  rather 


10 

than  in  the  form  most  convenient  for  statistical  treatment.  Hence 
the  various  results  must  be  rated  on  some  common  scale  which  has 
steps  of  sufficient  number  to  provide  the  necessary  differentiation 
without  introducing  a  false  accuracy.  In  addition,  since  many  of 
the  tests  used  have  not  been  scientifically  standardized,  it  is  im- 
portant to  adopt  a  rating  system  which  will  permit  the  comparison 
of  test  scores  with  each  other  rather  than  with  accepted  standards. 

A  consideration  of  the  many  rating  scales  which  lend  them- 
selves to  the  present  purpose  shows  that  the  extremes  are  to  be 
found  in  the  percentile  and  the  two-division  systems.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  the  pseudo-accuracy  of  the 
percentile  grade.  It  is  only  in  the  very  unusual  case  that  the 
material  to  be  rated  can  be  clearly  enough  differentiated  to  give  any 
real  significance  to  each  of  the  hundred  points  on  the  percentile  scale. 
Investigations  have  shown  the  wide  variation  in  grades  given  by 
different  instructors  to  the  same  examination  paper  even  in  the 
field  of  mathematics  where  the  greatest  accuracy  might  be  expected. 
This  variation,  however,  is  no  greater  than  that  shown  in  the  grades 
given  by  the  same  scorer  to  the  same  paper  at  different  times.  The 
injustice  done  to  the  college  student  who  receives  a  final  mark  of 
69  per  cent  in  the  course  which  demands  70  per  cent  as  a  passing 
grade  has  been  commented  upon  too  frequently  to  require  more  than 
passing  mention  in  this  discussion.  Obviously,  the  refinement  of  the 
percentile  scale  is  too  great  for  the  material  here  at  hand.  On  the 
contrary,  the  system  which  merely  distinguishes  the  "passing"  from 
the  "not  passing"  does  not  provide  sufficient  differentiation  for 
analytic  examination  of  the  results  of  a  series  of  mental  tests. 

Popular  acceptance  would  seem  to  have  stamped  its  seal  of 
approval  on  a  five-division  rating  scale.  Cabbages  and  kings  alike 
are  usually  judged  mediocre,  good  or  very  good,  poor  or  very  poor. 
The  great  majority  of  our  quantitative  expressions  are  given  in 
these  terms,  and  the  system  seems  to  provide  a  sufficient  number 
of  significant  levels  without  introducing  the  fallacy  of  too  great 
refinement.  This  psychological  justification  of  the  five-point  scale, 
as  well  as  other  considerations  of  convenience  and  facility  of  compari- 
son, led  to  its  adoption  as  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  treating 
the  various  results  and  scores  herein  presented.  In  accordance  with 
this  decision,  the  results  of  each  test  given  to  the  two  hundred  students 
who  comprised  the  class  in  elementary  psychology  were  arranged  in 
rank  order  and  separated  into  quintiles.  While  the  nature  of  some 
of  the  tests  has  made  even  such  a  coarse  rating  as  this  quite  difficult, 
it  is  believed  that  the  system  adopted  is  the  most  practicable  that 
could  have  been  devised  for  the  present  purpose.     Since  all  grades 


11 

assigned  in  the  School  of  Arts  and  Science  at  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania are  recorded  in  terms  of  a  five-point  system,  an  added 
advantage  is  gained  in  the  comparison  of  test  scores  with  academic 
success. 

The  results  tabulated  in  a  later  section  will  therefore  not  be 
found  to  contain  the  number  of  digits  for  the  memory  span,  the 
number  of  seconds  required  for  the  completion  of  the  cylinder  test, 
or  the  number  of  problems  correctly  solved  in  the  general  intel- 
ligence examination,  but  instead  the  translation  of  each  of  these 
scores  into  a  quintile  rating.  If  the  performance  of  an  individual 
places  him  in  the  best  twenty  per  cent  of  the  class  in  a  particular 
test,  he  is  given  a  rating  of  "5",  if  in  the  poorest  fifth  of  the  group 
of  two  hundred,  his  quintile  grade  would  be  "  1 ".  The  upper,  middle, 
and  lower  quintiles  are  represented  by  "4",  "3",  and  "2",  respec- 
tively. By  thus  evaluating  a  given  performance  in  terms  of  the  class 
results,  it  will  be  found  a  relatively  simple  matter  to  scrutinize  the 
ratings  for  each  individual  and  gain  a  fairly  trustworthy  impression 
of  his  standing  in  an  unselected  group  of  university  students,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  note  his  peculiar  mental  assets  and  liabilities. 

Selection  of  Group. 

Since  it  is  the  aim  of  this  investigation  to  discover  individual 
differences  in  a  comparatively  homogeneous  group  of  students,  it 
seemed  advisable  to  make  certain  eliminations  before  undertaking  an 
intensive  study  of  test  scores  and  college  grades.  Of  the  220  students 
who  registered  for  Psychology  1  at  the  beginning  of  the  session  of 
1919-20,  fifteen  withdrew  before  the  work  of  the  semester  was  really 
under  way,  reducing  the  class  to  an  actual  enrolment  of  205.  Of 
these,  125  were  taking  the  course  in  the  School  of  Arts  and  Science, 
the  remainder  being  students  in  the  School  of  Education.  This  split 
also  gives  the  approximate  ratio  of  men  to  women  in  the  class.  Dur- 
ing the  semester  twenty  members  of  the  class  were  dropped  because 
of  deficiency  or  received  a  failure  upon  the  termination  of  the  course 
which  excluded  them  from  participation  in  Psychology  2.  Since  it 
was  deemed  advisable  to  make  the  completion  of  both  courses  one 
of  the  requisites  for  inclusion  in  this  study,  these  twenty  students 
were  automatically  eliminated.  In  order  to  obtain  homogeneity  it 
was  also  decided  not  to  introduce  sex  differences  but  to  limit  the 
investigation  to  male  students  enrolled  in  the  School  of  Arts  and 
Science.  Of  the  125  men  who  originally  started  the  course  only  113 
were  eligible  for  Psychology  2,  and  of  these  only  eighty  received 
final  grades  at  the  end  of  the  second  semester.  Since  one  of  the 
ratings  to  be  taken  into  consideration  is  based  on  academic  standing, 


12 

it  was  thought  best  not  to  include  first-year  students  in  the  selected 
group,  thereby  eliminating  all  who  were  not  able  to  survive  at  least 
one  year  of  university  work,  reducing  the  variation  in  age,  and  at  the 
same  time  making  it  possible  to  base  the  academic  rating  on  college 
grades  received  during  two  or  more  years  of  class  attendance. 

When  these  eliminations  had  been  made,  fifty-one  students 
were  eligible  for  inclusion  in  this  study.  Of  this  number,  one  indi- 
vidual over  thirty  years  of  age  was  arbitrarily  excluded  as  not  con- 
forming to  the  normal  college  age.  Of  the  fifty  remaining  as  subjects 
of  this  investigation,  thirty-three  had  sophomore  standing,  twelve 
were  rated  as  juniors,  and  five  were  seniors.  The  average  age  for 
the  group  as  of  October  1,  1919,  was  20.8  years,  that  of  the  sopho- 
mores being  20.5  years,  and  of  the  juniors  and  seniors,  21.3  and  21.4 
years  respectively.  Although  the  averages  in  the  latter  cases  are 
not  of  great  significance  due  to  the  small  size  of  the  groups  in  question, 
the  figures  quoted  do  show  that  the  larger  group  of  fifty  is  composed 
of  students  of  approximately  normal  college  age.  In  conclusion,  it 
will  be  well  to  point  out  that  although  only  about  one-fourth  of  the 
total  class  in  psychology  is  to  be  included  in  the  study,  the  selection 
was  made  on  the  basis  of  group  qualifications  and  without  regard  to 
individual  merit,  except  for  the  automatic  elimination  of  those  mem- 
bers of  the  class  who  were  excluded  for  deficiency  in  scholarship. 

The  Psychological  Tests. 

The  psychological  tests  included  a  general  intelligence  examina- 
tion, the  "Psychological  Examination  for  College  Freshmen  and 
High  School  Seniors",  devised  by  Professor  L.  L.  Thurstone,  and  the 
following  thirteen  tests  designed  to  exercise  some  particular  ability 
or  group  of  abilities:  (1)  Ausfrage  (Observation)  Test,  (2)  Taylor 
Number  Test,  (3)  Memory  Span  for  Digits,  (4)  Memory  Span  for 
Syllables,  (5)  Memory  Span  for  Ideas,  (6)  Description  of  Formboard, 
(7)  Trabue  Language  Test,  (8)  Courtis  Arithmetic  Test,  (9)  Differ- 
ences and  Likenesses  Test,  (10)  Opposites  Test,  (11)  Definitions 
Test,  (12)  Humpstone  Memory  Test,  (13)  Witmer  Cylinder  Test. 

The  tests  were  given  in  the  order  indicated,  and,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Witmer  cylinder  test,  all  were  given  during  the  first  half 
of  the  academic  year,  or,  in  other  words,  as  part  of  the  laboratory 
work  in  Psychology  1.  The  cylinder  test  was  given  in  connection 
with  the  competency  rating  toward  the  close  of  the  second  semester, 
and  it  is  the  only  one  of  the  series  which  was  given  as  an  individual 
and  not  as  a  group  test,  and  likewise  it  alone  was  given  primarily  as 
a  test  and  not  for  its  didactic  or  illustrative  value.  Of  the  series 
employed,  the  memory  span  for  digits,  the  Trabue  sentence  com- 


13 

pletion,  the  Courtis  arithmetic  and  Witmer  cylinder  tests  are  all  in 
general  use  and  have  been  carefully  standardized.  The  Ausfrage, 
memory  span  for  syllables  and  for  ideas,  description,  differences  and 
likenesses,  opposites,  and  definitions  tests  have  merely  been  adapted 
to  the  present  instructional  aims,  while  the  Taylor  number  test  and 
the  Humpstone  memory  test  are  here  described  for  the  first  time. 

Before  undertaking  a  description  of  the  various  tests  it  will  be 
well  to  note  in  connection  with  the  scoring  that  the  quintile  ratings 
were  in  each  case  based  on  the  results  of  the  class  of  approximately 
two  hundred  students  and  not  on  the  relative  performance  of  the 
fifty  here  to  be  considered. 

Thurstone  Psychological  Examination. 

On  the  afternoon  of  October  26, 1919,  some  fifteen  hundred  first- 
year  students  in  the  various  undergraduate  schools  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  were  given  the  Thurstone  "Psychological  Exam- 
ination for  College  Freshmen  and  High  School  Seniors",  the  experi- 
ment being  conducted  by  the  Department  of  Admissions  in  co- 
operation with  a  number  of  other  colleges  and  universities  in  the 
state  of  Pennsylvania.  At  the  same  hour,  the  examination  was 
given  to  approximately  120  students  who  were  then  meeting  in 
different  sections  of  Psychology  1,  with  the  purpose  of  comparing 
the  scores  obtained  by  this  relatively  selected  group,  which  included 
no  freshmen,  with  the  results  of  the  larger  first  year  group.  The 
fifty  students  who  form  the  basis  for  this  investigation  all  took  the 
examination  as  members  of  laboratory  classes  in  psychology. 

Description:  The  form  which  was  used  is  known  as  "Test  IV, 
Edition  of  September,  1919 — issued  by  L.  L.  Thurstone  of  the 
Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology".  The  examination  consists  of 
168  short  problems  which  are  to  be  solved  in  order.  The  printed 
directions  on  the  cover  of  the  pamphlet,  and  the  specific  nature  of 
the  instructions  for  each  problem  greatly  simplify  the  administration 
of  the  test.  The  important  timing  element,  which  is  a  complicating 
factor  in  such  examinations  as  the  Army  Alpha  and  the  Otis  intelli- 
gence test,  is  practically  eliminated  in  this  case.  The  directions, 
which  are  read  by  the  examinee  before  the  beginning  of  the  exami- 
nation, state  that  thirty  minutes  will  be  given  in  which  to  solve  as 
many  problems  as  possible.  The  problems  are  to  be  taken  in  order, 
but  instructions  are  also  given  to  skip  any  which  may  not  be  under- 
stood. The  task  of  the  examiner,  therefore,  is  merely  to  call  attention 
to  the  directions  after  the  pamphlets  have  been  distributed,  and  to 
give  the  appropriate  signals  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  thirty- 
minute  period.     Although  the  subject  is  directed  to  solve  the  prob- 


14 

lems  in  order,  the  final  score  is  determined  solely  by  the  number  of 
correct  solutions  without  reference  to  errors  or  omissions. 

The  168  problems  which  compose  the  examination  are  arranged 
in  what  is  known  as  the  cycle-omnibus  form.  In  other  words,  while 
only  six  different  tests  are  employed,  the  separate  problems  which 
go  to  make  up  each  test  appear  in  rotation  instead  of  being  grouped 
together  as  is  more  usually  the  case.  The  examination  may  readily 
be  analyzed  into  a  number  of  sets  of  eight  problems  each,  and  in 
each  set  all  of  the  six  types  of  tests  occur  in  regular  order.  The 
first  two  problems  in  each  group  form  part  of  a  general  information 
test,  while  the  next  two  are  a  variation  of  the  familiar  analogies  test, 
and  the  fifth  is  a  sentence  completion  test  taken  from  the  language 
scales  devised  by  Trabue.  The  sixth  problem  in  each  set  is  of  the 
type  known  as  the  syllogism  test,  and  the  seventh,  referred  to  by 
Thurstone  as  the  reading  test,  is  a  form  of  the  widely-used  proverbs 
test.  The  last  problem  of  the  group  is  an  example  of  the  number 
completion  test 

Since  eight  of  the  168  problems  are  preliminary  samples  for 
which  the  correct  solution  is  given,  the  examination  actually  con- 
sists of  only  160  problems  of  which  forty  comprise  a  test  of  general 
information,  an  equal  number  form  an  analogies  test,  while  each  of 
the  other  types  is  represented  by  twenty  problems.  The  final  score 
is  therefore  weighted  in  the  direction  of  information  and  analogies. 

Discussion:  It  is  not  the  present  intention  to  enter  into  a 
lengthy  criticism  of  the  validity  of  general  intelligence  tests.  Ever 
since  the  Binet-Simon  scale  came  into  popular  use,  this  question 
has  been  discussed  with  varying  degrees  of  fervor,  and  the  many 
recent  additions  to  the  store  of  group  tests,  which  have  appeared  as 
an  aftermath  of  the  army  series,  have  served  to  keep  the  controversy 
before  the  psychological  eye.  Even  the  most  conservative  intro- 
spectionist  must  admit  that  the  army  tests  performed  a  valuable 
service  in  the  stratification  of  the  National  Army,  and  that  satis- 
factory results  are  being  obtained  at  several  of  the  larger  univer- 
sities by  the  admission  of  students  on  the  basis  of  group  psychological 
examinations  in  lieu  of  the  traditional  entrance  requirements.  The 
general  intelligence  test  is  of  established  significance  in  the  differ- 
entiation of  the  various  well-recognized  levels  of  performance.  The 
question  which  must  be  broached  here  is  whether  it  is  of  equal 
significance  when  applied  to  individuals  at  the  same  general  intellec- 
tual level,  and  particularly  whether  it  discloses  any  information  of 
value  relative  to  the  college  student. 

It  may  be  contended  that  the  Thurstone  examination  is  designed 
for  the  elimination  of  applicants  for  admission,  and  that  significant 


15 

results  are  not  to  be  expected  when  the  test  is  applied  to  students 
who  have  not  only  met  the  entrance  requirements  but  have  success- 
fully completed  at  least  one  year  of  college  work,  as  is  the  case  with 
the  present  group.  Nevertheless,  it  seems  profitable  to  inquire  into 
the  particular  abilities  called  into  play  when  the  examination  is 
submitted  to  college  students.  A  mere  inspection  of  the  series  of 
problems  quoted  above  will  demonstrate  that  the  correct  solutions 
could  be  given  by  any  person  of  the  intellectual  level  of  the  college 
student  were  unlimited  time  at  his  disposal.  An  exception  to  this 
statement  must  be  made  in  the  case  of  a  few  general  information 
questions,  which  are  so  designed  that  no  individual  would  be  likely 
to  give  correct  answers  to  all.  Hence,  whatever  the  abilities  in- 
volved in  the  solution  of  the  six  different  tests  of  which  the  exam- 
ination is  composed,  the  score  obtained  is  primarily  an  index  of  mental 
alertness  or  of  the  rapidity  of  the  reasoning  processes  and  not  of 
what  is  usually  termed  general  intelligence.  If  the  colleges  wish  to 
admit  candidates  on  the  basis  of  the  speed  with  which  a  problem  can 
be  solved  and  without  regard  to  the  proportion  of  correct  solutions, 
then  the  Thurstone  examination  should  be  found  very  satisfactory. 
Or  if  experimentation  can  demonstrate  that  the  rapid  thinker  is  also 
the  accurate  thinker,  this  type  of  test  will  be  equally  acceptable. 
In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  a  correlation  between 
the  score  on  the  Thurstone  test  and  the  percentage  of  correct  answers 
to  the  total  number  attempted  shows  the  unexpectedly  high  coeffi- 
cient of  +0.74  (Pearson)  in  the  case  of  fifty  results  chosen  at  random. 
This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  accuracy  and  speed  are  closely 
related,  and  must  be  considered  as  arguing  for  the  validity  of  the 
examination.  A  study  of  the  same  fifty  cases  shows  that  on  the 
average  only  85  per  cent  of  the  solutions  given  were  correct,  the 
syllogism  test  being  the  most  difficult  with  23  per  cent  incorrect, 
while  the  greatest  accuracy  was  shown  in  the  analogies,  sentence 
completion,  and  number  completion  tests,  each  of  which  had  an 
error  of  only  10  per  cent. 

Although  the  " cycle-omnibus' '  type  of  examination  has  marked 
advantages,  chief  among  which  are  simplicity  in  administration  and 
scoring,  one  important  weakness  must  be  noted.  Assuming  that 
the  six  tests  which  compose  the  examination  call  into  play  different 
abilities,  it  is  often  desirable  to  analyze  a  given  score  in  order  to 
determine  individual  assets  or  deficiencies.  In  other  words,  a  low 
score  might  be  due  either  to  a  poor  performance  in  all  six  of  the 
tests,  or  to  a  particularly  deficient  result  in  any  one  of  them,  such 
as  the  general  information  test.  While  the  score  would  be  the  same 
in  both  cases,  its  significance  would  be  very  different.      Most  of  the 


16 

general  intelligence  tests  are  so  arranged  that  the  scores  for  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  examination  are  readily  available  for  comparison. 
In  the  case  of  the  cycle-omnibus,  however,  an  analysis  of  the  various 
test  results  is  practically  impossible  in  view  of  the  undue  expendi- 
ture of  time  and  effort  required. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  other  tests,  the  class  scores  for  the  Thurstone 
examination  were  arranged  in  rank  order  and  quintiled.  The  rating 
for  each  individual  in  the  table  of  results  shows  the  quintile  grade 
and  not  the  actual  score.  A  discussion  of  the  results  and  correlations 
obtained  will  appear  in  a  later  section. 

Ausfrage  Test. 

Description:  This  test  is  a  variation  of  the  familiar  Ausfrage 
test,  differing  from  it  only  in  that  specific  questions  are  asked.  In 
the  first  part  of  the  test  a  picture  was  thrown  on  the  screen  with  the 
aid  of  a  stereopticon  and  the  class  allowed  to  examine  it  for  two 
minutes,  the  following  instructions  having  previously  been  given: 
"I  am  going  to  throw  a  picture  on  the  screen.  While  it  is  there  I 
want  you  to  do  nothing  but  look  at  it.  When  I  have  finished  I  will 
ask  you  to  answer  some  questions."  Upon  the  removal  of  the 
picture,  ten  questions  were  asked  relative  to  different  objects  which 
may  or  may  not  have  appeared  in  the  picture. 

The  second  part  of  the  test  consisted  of  a  series  of  ten  questions 
based  on  observation  of  the  university  buildings  and  campus  and  of 
the  city  of  Philadelphia.  In  both  parts  of  the  test  written  answers 
were  obtained. 

In  scoring  the  results,  each  correct  answer  received  one  point, 
giving  a  maximum  score  of  twenty  points.  The  class  results  were 
distributed  in  rank  order  and  quintile  ratings  determined. 

Discussion:  The  ability  primarily  involved  in  this  test  is  that 
of  observation,  which  implies  attending  to  something  and  making 
note  of  it  for  a  purpose.  In  this  case,  the  stimulus  was  visual,  and 
therefore  visual  sensibility  and  discrimination  are  essential.  It  may 
be  assumed,  however,  in  connection  with  this  test  as  well  as  those 
which  follow,  that  every  member  of  the  class  was  equipped  with  the 
necessary  sensibility  and  with  the  psycho-motor  apparatus  involved 
in  the  recording  of  results,  and  these  factors  will  therefore  be  dis- 
regarded in  discussing  the  various  tests.  Analytic  concentration 
and  distribution  of  attention  play  a  part  in  the  process  of  observa- 
tion, as  does  the  factor  of  associability,  which  will  be  discussed  at 
some  length  in  connection  with  memory  span.  Memory  enters  but 
little  into  the  first  part  of  the  test,  since  the  retention  required  is  of 
brief  duration,  but  it  must  be  considered  an  important  element  in 


17 

the  second  part.     While  all  of  the  abilities  mentioned  are  involved, 
the  test  may  be  regarded  as  primarily  one  of  observation. 

Taylor  Number  Test. 

Description:  The  test  material  consists  of  a  sheet  of  white  paper 
8J/£  x  10  inches  in  size,  upon  which  are  distributed  in  a  haphazard 
arrangement  the  numbers  from  1  to  50,  inclusive,  printed  in  half-inch 
bold-face  black  type.  One  sheet  was  handed  to  each  student  with 
the  numbered  side  of  the  paper  downward,  while  the  following 
directions  were  given:  "I  am  going  to  give  each  of  you  a  sheet  of 
paper.  I  want  you  to  let  it  lie  on  your  desk  until  I  tell  you  what 
to  do  with  it.  When  I  am  ready  I  shall  give  three  commands,  the 
first,  *  Ready',  the  second,  'Turn',  and  the  third,  'Go\  When  you 
turn  the  paper,  turn  it  from  the  right  side  over  to  the  left,  and  in 
the  upper  left  hand  corner  you  will  find  the  number  '1\  On  the 
paper  are  the  numbers  from  1  to  50,  not  arranged  in  any  regular 
order,  but  scattered  over  the  sheet.  As  soon  as  you  have  turned 
the  paper,  place  your  pencil  on  number  1.  When  I  say  'Go',  draw 
a  straight  line  to  number  2,  then  to  3,  and  go  on  in  order  to  each 
number  until  I  say  'Stop'.  When  I  say  'Stop'  hold  your  pencils  in 
the  air  immediately." 

A  time  limit  of  forty  seconds  was  allowed  for  the  test,  and  the 
results  were  then  scored  on  the  basis  of  the  highest  number  reached. 
The  distribution  of  class  results  was  made  and  the  quintile  ratings 
obtained. 

Discussion:  In  so  far  as  is  known,  this  test  was  devised  by 
Mr.  Charles  K.  Taylor  and  was  first  used  a  number  of  years  ago  in 
the  Psychological  Laboratory  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
When  repeated  a  number  of  times  the  Taylor  number  test  serves  as 
an  excellent  index  of  trainability,  but  when  only  one  trial  is  allowed 
it  must  be  considered  a  test  of  alertness  or  distribution  of  attention. 
In  many  ways  this  test  is  similar  to  the  more  familiar  "Cancellation 
Test",  but  it  has  the  advantage  of  providing  no  definite  cues  to 
exploitation,  since  great  care  was  taken  not  to  arrange  the  numbers 
on  the  sheet  in  an  orderly  manner.  In  addition,  the  goal  is  con- 
stantly changing  in  this  test  while  it  remains  constant  in  the  can- 
cellation test,  where  the  aim  is  to  locate  some  particular  letter  or 
digit. 

It  would  seem  unlikely  that  discrimination  of  form  would  be  a 
factor  worthy  of  consideration  in  the  performance  of  this  test  by 
college  students,  but  under  the  conditions  of  rapid  exploration  which 
usually  exist  this  element  cannot  be  overlooked.  The  test  also  has 
an  important  motor  phase,  and  coordination  and  control  of  move- 


18 

ment  play  a  rather  important  part  in  the  result.  However,  the 
higher  scores  may  be  attributed  to  good  distribution  of  attention 
coupled  with  methodical  exploration. 

Memory  Span  for  Digits. 

Description:  The  material  for  this  test  consists  of  twenty  series 
of  digits,  ranging  in  length  from  three  to  twelve  digits,  and  including 
two  series  of  each  length.  The  series  used  were  employed  by  H.  J. 
Humpstone  in  his  standardization  of  the  test,  and  were  so  prepared 
that  no  two  digits  occur  in  the  natural  order  or  in  the  reversed  order, 
no  two  succeeding  series  begin  with  the  same  digit,  and  no  digit  is 
repeated  except  in  the  series  of  ten  or  more.     Zero  is  not  used. 

The  instructions  given  were  those  used  by  Humpstone  (9). 
"This  is  an  experiment.  In  every  experiment  it  is  necessary  for 
everyone  who  takes  part  to  do  just  what  the  experimenter  asks. 
Please  do  just  as  I  ask  you  to.  I  am  going  to  say  some  numbers. 
While  I  say  them  I  do  not  want  you  to  do  anything  except  look  at 
me  and  hold  your  pencils  up  where  I  can  see  them.  When  I  put  my 
pencil  down  you  write  on  your  paper  the  numbers  I  have  said." 
The  digits  were  then  pronounced  at  the  rate  of  one  per  second,  with- 
out rhythm  or  change  of  intonation  except  that  on  the  last  one  of  a 
series  the  voice  was  allowed  to  fall  as  a  signal  for  reproduction.  In 
each  case  the  number  of  digits  in  the  series  was  announced  before 
the  series  was  given.  In  scoring  the  results,  the  number  of  digits 
in  the  longest  series  correctly  reproduced  is  considered  the  memory 
span.    The  quintile  ratings  are  based  on  the  scores  thus  obtained. 

Discussion:  According  to  Professor  Humpstone,  "It  has  been 
assumed  by  almost  everybody  who  has  written  on  the  test  that  it 
tests  memory.  A  careful  analysis  causes  us  to  doubt  the  validity  of 
the  assumption.  Some  imagination  is  required.  The  subject  must 
have  enough  imageability  to  get  perceptions  of  the  stimuli  .... 
In  the  same  sense  memory  is  involved.  The  images  must  be  retained 
long  enough  for  reproduction.  But  this  period  is  so  brief  that  the 
results  do  not  furnish  any  criterion  by  which  to  judge  of  retentive- 
ness  ....  Attention  is  involved  also  ....  The  ability  to  dis- 
tribute the  attention  well  is  doubtless  an  aid  in  the  performance." 
He  continues,  "Perhaps  the  memory  span  test  comes  nearer  to  testing 
one  definite  ability  than  any  other  test.  Whatever  other  factors  or 
abilities  enter  into  the  performance  of  this  test  it  is  clear  that  the 
thing  specifically  tested  is  the  ability  to  grasp  and  associate  a  number 
of  discrete  units  of  perception  in  a  definite  order.  This  is  not  memory 
as  pointed  out  above.  We  are  using  the  term  associability  and 
subsuming  it  under  the  general  heading  imagination.     Associability 


19 

refers  to  the  'number  of  discrete  perceptions  associated  in  a  single 
act  of  attention,  and  the  combination  of  the  associated  component 
parts  of  a  single  perception'." 

While  the  memory  span  test  is  of  great  value  in  the  examination 
of  the  mentally  retarded,  and  it  can  be  said  without  fear  of  contra- 
diction that  a  memory  span  of  four  and  probably  of  five  is  pre- 
requisite to  intellectual  development,  the  test  loses  much  of  its 
significance  when  applied  to  a  group  of  college  students.  Certainly 
in  the  case  of  the  higher  scores  the  result  has  been  exaggerated  by 
means  of  grouping,  and  the  factor  of  planfulness  plays  an  important 
part.  The  lower  memory  spans  of  five  and  six  digits  are  probably 
of  greater  significance. 

Memory  Span  for  Syllables. 

Description:  The  subject-matter  of  the  test  consists  of  sixteen 
sentences  ranging  in  length  from  ten  to  fifty  syllables.  The  series 
provides  two  sentences  at  each  of  the  various  levels,  namely  ten, 
twenty,  twenty-five,  thirty,  thirty-five,  forty,  forty-five,  and  fifty 
syllables.  The  sentences  were  prepared  by  H.  J.  Humpstone  and 
were  all  taken  from  a  popular  current  periodical,  so  as  to  obtain 
material  of  a  non-technical  character  which  would  be  of  suitable 
difficulty  and  complexity  for  the  ordinary  adult.  In  each  pair  of 
sentences,  the  first  is  designed  to  encourage  visual  imagery,  while 
the  second  is  of  a  more  abstract  nature  and  does  not  lend  itself 
readily  to  any  type  of  sensory  imagery. 

In  administering  the  test,  the  sentences  were  read  aloud  with 
natural  expression,  the  class  having  been  instructed  to  reproduce 
each  sentence  graphically,  immediately  following  its  presentation. 
The  number  of  syllables  in  the  longest  sentence  reproduced  verbatim 
was  considered  the  memory  span  for  syllables  for  each  individual. 
The  scores  thus  obtained  were  distributed  in  the  usual  manner  and 
quintiled. 

Discussion:  The  test  here  described  is  an  adaptation  of  the 
"repeating  syllables"  test  used  by  Binet  and  modified  by  Terman 
(10)  in  the  Stanford  revision  of  the  Binet-Simon  scale.  It  was  felt 
that  the  sentences  used  by  Terman  in  the  average  adult  group  were 
not  well  suited  to  the  college  student,  and  it  was  also  desired  to 
extend  the  series  beyond  twenty-eight  syllables.  Results  so  far 
obtained  with  the  Humpstone  sentences  show  a  maximum  span  of 
forty  syllables,  a  minimum  of  twenty,  with  a  decided  mode  at  thirty 
syllables.  An  analysis  of  a  large  number  of  results  has  shown  no 
significant  difference  in  the  difficulty  of  the  visual  and  abstract 
sentences. 


20 

The  test  may  be  said  to  measure  the  integrated  memory  span. 
While  the  factor  of  associability  is  probably  predominant,  the  ele- 
ments in  this  case  are  not  discrete  as  in  the  memory  span  for  digits, 
and  reproduction  calls  for  a  higher  degree  of  intellectual  organization. 
Memory  is  a  more  important  factor  than  in  the  span  for  digits,  since 
the  period  of  retention  is  somewhat  longer,  but  again  it  cannot  be 
considered  the  ability  primarily  tested.  Language  ability  is  cer- 
tainly involved  but  the  popular  character  of  the  sentences  employed 
minimizes  its  importance  when  the  test  is  applied  to  college  students. 
The  use  of  tests  of  this  nature  as  a  measure  of  proficiency  in  a  foreign 
language  is  suggested  in  this  connection.  The  memory  span  for 
syllables  must  be  considered  an  index  of  integrability  rather  than  of 
simple  associability. 

Memory  Span  for  Ideas. 

Description:  The  paragraph  beginning  "Tests  such  as  we  are 
now  making"  from  the  superior  adult  series  of  the  Stanford  revision 
was  used  as  the  material  for  the  test.  The  standard  directions  were 
given  with  necessary  modification  for  graphic  instead  of  oral  repro- 
duction, as  follows:  "I  am  going  to  read  a  little  selection  of  about 
six  or  eight  lines.  When  I  am  through  I  will  ask  you  to  write  as 
much  of  it  as  you  can.  It  doesn't  make  any  difference  whether  you 
remember  the  exact  words  or  not,  but  you  must  listen  carefully  so 
that  you  can  write  down  everything  it  says."  The  paragraph  was 
then  read  at  a  natural  rate,  following  which  adequate  time  was 
allowed  for  reproduction. 

The  results  were  scored  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  ideas 
correctly  recorded,  the  paragraph  having  been  analyzed  into  sixteen 
discrete  ideas.  The  scores  thus  obtained  were  arranged  in  rank 
order  and  the  quintile  ratings  determined. 

Discussion:  While  this  test  is  spoken  of  by  Whipple  and  others 
as  a  measure  of  logical  as  contrasted  with  rote  memory,  Terman  calls 
attention  to  the  fact  that  it  is  rather  a  test  "of  ability  to  comprehend 
the  drift  of  an  abstract  passage".  It  seems  more  satisfactory,  how- 
ever, to  regard  the  memory  span  for  ideas  as  a  natural  sequent  to 
the  spans  for  digits  and  syllables.  It  will  readily  be  granted  that 
the  college  student,  who  receives  most  of  his  mental  pabulum  through 
the  medium  of  lectures,  can  comprehend  the  drift  of  such  a  passage 
as  the  one  here  employed.  The  test  must,  therefore,  be  considered 
a  measure  of  the  subject's  ability  to  associate  in  consciousness  a 
number  of  logically  related  ideas.  That  this  requires  a  higher  level 
of  intellectual  organization  than  the  verbatim  reproduction  of  a 
sentence,  as  in  the  memory  span  for  syllables,  is  hardly  open  to 


21 

question.  The  test,  then,  involves  not  only  the  element  of  associ- 
ability  but  likewise  a  high  degree  of  understanding  and  of  intellect. 
It  would  therefore  be  reasonable  to  expect  this  test  to  be  more 
significant  when  applied  to  college  students  than  either  the  memory 
span  for  digits  or  for  syllables. 

While  there  may  be  some  disagreement  as  to  what  constitutes 
the  unit  idea  which  is  to  be  used  as  the  basis  for  scoring,  the  method 
employed  by  Terman  is  too  vague  for  the  present  purpose,  and  it  is 
believed  that  the  comparative  results  obtained  by  any  logical  scoring 
system  will  be  significant. 

Description  Test. 

Description:  The  Witmer  formboard,  a  modification  of  that  of 
Seguin,  was  used  as  the  object  to  be  described.  The  Witmer  board 
provides  recesses  for  eleven  forms,  namely  the  square,  rectangle, 
cross,  oval,  semicircle,  star,  equilateral  triangle,  isosceles  triangle, 
hexagon,  circle,  and  diamond.  The  following  instructions  were 
given:  "I  have  here  an  object.  I  am  not  going  to  give  you  a  name 
for  it.  You  can  call  it  a  'thing' — call  it  'X\  I  want  you  to  pass 
it  around  so  that  each  one  in  the  class  has  an  opportunity  to  examine 
it."  A  number  of  formboards  were  then  passed  about  the  class, 
and  after  six  minutes  had  been  allowed  for  examination  they  were 
collected  and  placed  on  tables  in  different  parts  of  the  laboratory 
where  they  could  easily  be  seen.  Further  instructions  were  then 
given.  "What  is  it?  In  answer  to  that  question  I  want  you  to 
write  a  description  in  such  a  way  that  anyone  would  understand  and 
recognize  this  object.  You  will  be  allowed  twenty  minutes  in  which 
to  write  this  paper." 

Upon  the  completion  of  the  twenty-minute  period,  the  written 
descriptions  were  collected  and  redistributed  to  other  members  of 
the  class.  The  number  of  "points  of  description "  to  be  used  as  a 
basis  for  scoring  of  results  was  then  determined  in  an  open  discussion. 
The  scores,  which  were  later  translated  into  quintile  ratings,  were 
therefore  based  on  an  empirical  rather  than  an  arbitrary  standard. 

Discussion:  The  term  "  description'  *.  as  used  in  this  test  has 
reference,  not  to  a  literary  form,  but  to  the  enumeration  of  the 
salient  characteristics  of  the  object  in  question.  The  test  is  obviously 
related  to  the  Ausfrage  test  previously  discussed,  in  that  observation 
is  an  important  factor.  In  this  case,  however,  memory  plays  no 
part,  since  the  object  to  be  described  is  displayed  throughout  the 
twenty-minute  period.  The  test  resembles  the  Aussage  test  in  that 
no  specific  questions  are  asked,  the  score  being  based  instead  on  the 
number  of  points  of  description  noted.    The  problem  must  therefore 


22 

be  considered  one  of  analysis,  and  the  ability  primarily  involved  may 
be  termed  analytic  concentration  of  attention.  This  ability  is  con- 
trasted with  the  distribution  or  alertness  of  attention  called  for  in 
the  Taylor  number  test. 

The  description  test  was  first  used  by  Binet,  who  stated  that 
individual  psychology  can  be  more  readily  studied  through  the 
examination  of  complex  rather  than  simple  mental  processes.  The 
test,  in  the  form  of  description  of  pictures,  is  found  in  the  Binet- 
Simon  scale  as  well  as  in  the  Stanford  Revision.  When  applied  to 
children,  the  qualitative  aspect  of  the  description,  whether  mere 
enumeration  of  points  or  interpretation,  is  of  more  significance  than 
the  quantitative  score  used  in  this  case. 

Sentence  Completion  Test. 

Description:  Language  Scale  "K",  devised  by  M.  R.  Trabue 
(11),  was  employed  in  this  test.  Owing  to  its  wide  familiarity,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  remark  in  this  connection  that  Scale  K  consists 
of  seven  sentences  which  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  increasing 
difficulty.  Certain  words  in  each  sentence  have  been  omitted  and 
the  subject  is  asked  to  supply  the  missing  words.  The  procedure 
standardized  by  Trabue  was  adhered  to,  the  following  explanation 
being  given  before  the  distribution  of  the  forms. 

"This  sheet  contains  some  incomplete  sentences  which  form  a 
scale.  This  scale  is  to  measure  how  carefully  and  rapidly  you  can 
think,  and  especially  how  good  you  are  in  language  work.  You  are 
to  write  one  word  on  each  blank,  in  each  case  selecting  the  word 
which  makes  the  most  sensible  statement.  You  may  have  just  five 
minutes  in  which  to  sign  your  name  at  the  top  of  the  page  and  write 
the  words  that  are  missing.  The  papers  will  be  passed  to  you  with 
the  face  downward.  Do  not  turn  them  over  until  we  are  ready. 
After  the  signal  is  given  to  start,  remember  that  you  are  to  write 
just  one  word  on  each  blank  and  that  your  score  depends  on  the 
number  of  perfect  sentences  you  have  at  the  end  of  five  minutes." 

The  forms  were  then  distributed  and  the  following  additional 
instructions  given.  "  After  you  have  been  working  five  minutes,  I 
shall  say,  'The  time  is  up.  All  stop  writing !'  You  will  all  please 
stop  at  once  and  lay  aside  your  pens  (or  pencils).  Now  if  you  are 
all  ready,  you  may  turn  your  papers,  sign  your  names  and  fill  the 
blanks." 

In  scoring  the  results  the  method  recommended  by  Trabue  was 
followed,  a  sentence  perfectly  completed  being  given  two  points, 
one  point  being  allowed  where  the  idea  was  right  but  the  best  word 
not  supplied,  and  a  score  of  zero  received  where  the  completion  was 


23 

unsatisfactory  or  omitted.  The  total  number  of  points  for  the  test 
was  determined  and  the  quintile  ratings  given. 

Discussion:  Trabue,  in  discussing  his  language  scales,  does  not 
attempt  an  analysis  of  the  abilities  involved.  He  calls  attention  to 
the  fact  that  the  completion  test  was  characterized  by  Ebbinghaus, 
who  first  used  the  method,  as  a  "real  test  of  intelligence ",  and  that 
other  psychologists  have  classified  it  as  a  test  of  imagination,  memory, 
association,  and  various  other  "faculties".  Trabue  himself  is  satis- 
fied with  the  statement  that  the  "ability  to  complete  these  sentences 
successfully  is  very  closely  related  to  what  is  usually  called  language 
ability". 

As  has  been  mentioned  by  Whipple  and  others,  the  ability 
called  into  play  by  the  sentence  completion  test  varies  greatly  with 
the  number  and  character  of  the  elisions  made.  If  the  elisions  are 
few  and  the  nature  of  the  context  simple,  the  problem  becomes 
merely  one  of  controlled  association.  When  the  elisions  are  more 
numerous  the  test  becomes  one  of  active  imagination.  An  inspection 
of  the  seven  sentences  which  form  Scale  K  will  show  that  for  the 
college  student  the  first  three  sentences  and  probably  the  fourth 
present  no  imaginative  problem,  and  may  be  considered  comparatively 
simple  tests  of  controlled  association.  The  remaining  sentences, 
however,  are  decidedly  more  difficult,  as  evidenced  by  the  fact  that 
very  few  errors  were  made  in  the  completion  of  the  first  four  sentences 
while  many  were  recorded  in  the  fifth,  sixth  and  seventh,  and  these 
must  be  looked  upon  as  tests  of  imagination.  Nevertheless,  language 
ability  is  of  so  complex  a  character,  involving  as  it  does  various  types 
of  sensory  imagery,  memory,  and  intellectual  organization,  that  the 
use  of  the  term  imagination  in  this  connection  is  little  more  than 
begging  the  question. 

Although  the  abilities  involved  in  the  sentence  completion  test 
are  difficult  of  analysis,  the  test  is  of  proven  significance  as  an  index 
of  "general  intelligence",  and  a  study  of  the  nature  of  the  errors 
made  by  a  subject  is  often  of  diagnostic  value. 

Courtis  Arithmetic  Test. 

Description:  The  wide  acceptance  of  the  Courtis  standard 
tests  (12)  makes  necessary  only  a  brief  description  here.  Series  A, 
Form  3,  of  the  Courtis  arithmetic  test  was  used.  It  consists  of  a 
group  of  eight  separate  tests  in  the  fundamental  processes  of  arith- 
metic and  their  application  to  problems  of  varying  degrees  of  diffi- 
culty. The  first  five  tests  of  the  series  measure  efficiency  in  copying 
figures,   and   in  simple  addition,   subtraction,   multiplication  and 


24 

division,  respectively.  The  sixth  test  requires  judgments  of  the 
operation  to  be  used  in  simple  one-step  problems,  and  is  called  by 
Courtis  the  speed  reasoning  test.  The  seventh,  or  "fundamentals", 
test  provides  abstract  examples  in  the  four  operations,  and  serves 
as  a  "general  measure  of  the  ability  to  add,  subtract,  multiply  and 
divide  with  whole  numbers".  The  eighth  test  requires  judgment  of 
the  operations  to  be  used,  as  well  as  the  actual  solution  of  more 
difficult  two-step  problems. 

The  standard  procedure  was  closely  adhered  to  in  administering 
the  tests,  one  minute  being  allowed  for  each  of  the  first  six,  twelve 
minutes  for  the  seventh,  and  six  minutes  for  the  last  test.  After 
the  results  had  been  scored  in  the  usual  manner,  the  scores  for  each 
test  were  treated  separately,  class  distributions  being  made  and 
quintile  ratings  assigned.  The  eight  quintile  grades  for  each  indi- 
vidual were  then  averaged  and  the  averages  thus  obtained  were  in 
turn  put  in  rank  order  and  quintiled.  This  final  quintile  rating 
appears  in  the  tabulation  of  results  in  a  later  section  of  this 
report. 

Discussion:  The  Courtis  arithmetic  tests  provide  a  valuable 
illustration  of  the  efficiency  test  as  contrasted  with  that  of  intelli- 
gence. Although  this  is  true  to  a  greater  degree  of  the  first  five 
tests  than  of  the  sixth,  seventh  and  eighth,  even  these  latter  must 
be  considered  tests  of  efficiency  when  applied  to  college  students. 
It  may  be  assumed  that  every  member  of  such  a  group  has  the 
educational  background  and  mathematical  ability  necessary  to  solve 
each  of  the  simple  problems  presented,  and  the  test  therefore  mea- 
sures the  facility  with  which  the  fundamental  processes  can  be 
employed.  It  is  not  the  intention  here  to  attempt  to  analyze  the 
specific  abilities  involved  in  arithmetic.  It  has  even  been  asserted 
that  mathematical  ability  is  itself  specific,  akin,  for  example,  to 
musical  ability.  Certainly,  the  factor  of  intellect  cannot  be  disre- 
garded, and  in  such  a  test  as  this,  alertness  of  attention  and  motor 
coordination  are  also  important.  Since  the  higher  curriculum  does 
not  frequently  call  for  exercise  in  the  simpler  mathematical  opera- 
tions, it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  the  college  student  often  fails 
to  meet  the  standards  of  the  higher  elementary  grades.  This 
fact  illustrates  clearly  the  distinction  between  efficiency  and  com- 
petency. 

It  would  be  well  to  note  in  this  connection  the  service  which 
the  Courtis  tests  have  performed  in  introducing  scientific  measure- 
ments in  the  field  of  education.  The  tests  were  designed  primarily 
to  determine  the  efficiency  of  the  teacher  or  of  the  school  system 
and  not  to  discover  individual  competency. 


25 

Differences  and  Likenesses. 

Description:  The  tests  here  referred  to  are  all  found  in  the 
Stanford  Revision  of  the  Binet-Simon  scale,  and  include  the  "differ- 
ences" test  from  Year  VII,  the  "similarities — two  things"  test  from 
Year  VIII,  the  "similarities — three  things"  test  from  Year  XII,  and 
the  "differences  between  president  and  king"  from  Year  XIV  group. 
The  Terman  method  was  closely  adhered  to  in  giving  the  tests  except 
that  a  time  element  was  introduced.  One  minute  was  allowed  for 
each  part  of  the  seven-  and  eight-year  tests,  two  minutes  for  the 
twelve-year  test,  and  five  minutes  for  the  fourteen-year  test.  The 
response  in  each  case  was  written  instead  of  oral.  In  scoring,  one 
point  was  given  for  each  correct  difference  or  similarity.  It  was 
necessary,  however,  to  quintile  the  papers  largely  on  the  basis  of  a 
qualitative  judgment  of  the  results,  since  the  tests  here  described  do 
not  present  a  real  problem  to  the  college  student. 

Discussion:  Since  the  association  of  ideas  with  reference  to 
differences  and  similarities  constitutes  the  essential  element  of  the 
higher  thought  processes,  these  tests  are  of  great  significance  when 
applied  to  children,  and  were  included  in  this  series  chiefly  for  their 
illustrative  value.  From  a  genetic  point  of  view,  the  recognition 
of  differences  is  an  earlier  development  than  the  appreciation  of 
similarities,  as  evidenced  by  the  Terman  standardization  which  places 
them  at  the  seventh  and  eighth  years,  respectively.  However, 
although  similarity  in  the  use  of  familiar  objects  should  be  given  at 
the  eight-year  mental  level,  it  is  not  until  the  twelfth  year  that  the 
concept  thas  become  usable  to  the  extent  of  classing  the  snake,  the 
cow  and  the  sparrow  as  animals.  It  is  not  until  the  adult  level  has 
practically  been  reached  that  the  ability  to  appreciate  essential 
differences  and  likenesses  is  evident,  and  this  ability  may  be  con- 
sidered a  significant  index  of  intellectual  development. 

The  test  in  its  present  form  cannot  be  considered  satisfactory 
for  college  students,  and  as  Terman  suggests  it  would  be  advantageous 
to  develop  and  standardize  a  new  test  designed  primarily  for  use  in 
the  upper  years  and  at  the  adult  level,  and  adapted  to  call  into  play 
the  ability  to  give  essential  differences  and  likenesses.  As  a  test  for 
adults  the  one  here  used  can  only  be  said  to  exercise  the  associational 
processes. 

Opposite^  Test. 

Description:  The  difficult  opposites  found  in  List  V,  page  79, 
of  Whipple's  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests  (13)  was  used. 
The  directions  suggested  by  Whipple  were  given,  as  follows:  "Write 
as  soon  as  I  say  a  word  as  quickly  as  you  can  the  word  that  means 


26 

just  the  opposite.  Opposites  formed  by  the  prefixes  'un'  and  'in' 
or  by  the  suffix  'less*  are  not  to  be  given  unless  the  root  of  the  stim- 
ulus word  is  changed."  The  stimulus  words  were  called  at  five- 
second  intervals,  and  the  results  scored  upon  the  basis  of  correct 
opposites  determined  in  open  discussion. 

Discussion:  Tests  of  controlled  association,  such  as  the  part- 
whole,  genus-species,  and  opposites  tests,  are  usually  scored  on  the 
basis  of  the  time  required  and  the  accuracy  of  the  response.  In  the 
present  case,  however,  since  printed  forms  were  not  used,  the  time 
element  had  to  be  ignored  except  in  so  far  as  the  five-second  period 
eliminated  all  associations  requiring  a  greater  length  of  time.  In  the 
scoring  of  the  test  a  difficulty  was  encountered  in  the  determination 
of  correct  or  permissible  opposites,  and  in  some  cases  where  no 
original  opposite  could  be  agreed  upon  the  use  of  two  or  even  three 
terms  was  allowed. 

The  opposites  test  has  been  extensively  used  by  Thorndike, 
Woodworth  and  Wells,  Miss  Norsworthy  and  others.  The  abilities 
involved  vary  considerably  with  the  ease  or  difficulty  of  the  stimulus 
words.  If  the  associations  called  for  are  too  simple  the  response 
becomes  automatic,  while  if  the  stimulus  words  are  very  difficult  lack 
of  familiarity  with  the  terms  is  likely  to  interfere  with  the  validity 
of  the  test.  It  may  safely  be  stated  that  every  word  in  the  list  here 
employed  is  familiar  to  college  students,  and  that,  with  one  or  two 
exceptions,  the  associations  required  were  difficult  enough  to  eliminate 
automatic  responses.  It  is  therefore  reasonable  to  consider  the  test 
a  measure  of  the  facility  and  accuracy  of  controlled  association, 
involving  a  high  degree  of  language  ability. 

Definitions  Test. 

Description:  As  in  the  case  of  the  differences  and  likenesses 
test,  a  series  of  tests  from  different  age  levels  of  the  Stanford  Re- 
vision of  the  Binet-Simon  scale  were  used.  The  definitions  tests 
from  Year  V  and  from  Year  VIII,  the  definition  of  abstract  terms 
from  Year  XII,  and  the  differences  between  abstract  terms  from  the 
average  adult  series  comprise  the  present  test.  The  Terman  method 
was  employed  except  that  the  definition  was  written  and  a  time 
element  introduced.  One  minute  was  allowed  for  each  of  the  defi- 
nitions in  the  first  three  tests  and  two  minutes  for  each  in  the  fourth 
test.  In  scoring,  the  same  method  was  followed  as  in  the  case  of 
differences  and  likenesses,  and  the  same  criticism  as  to  the  accuracy 
of  the  quintile  ratings  applies  here. 

Discussion:  The  definitions  test  differs  from  those  previously 
discussed  in  that  it  tests  neither  intelligence  nor  efficiency  in  mental 


27 

processes,  but  is  employed  as  an  index  of  intellectual  development 
as  displayed  by  the  number  of  words  at  the  disposal  of  the  individual. 
Since  it  may  fairly  be  said  that  formal  education  consists  in  adding 
to  the  number  of  usable  idea-symbols  and  increasing  their  distinction, 
the  vocabulary  test  provides  a  simple  and  quite  trustworthy  measure- 
ment of  intellectual  status.  With  formal  education  so  important  a 
factor  in  each,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  the  high  degree  of  correlation 
noted  by  Terman  between  the  results  of  his  vocabulary  test  and 
intelligence  quotients  determined  by  the  Stanford  Revision. 

While  the  principle  involved  is  the  same,  the  test  here  employed 
differs  from  the  usual  vocabulary  test  in  that  only  a  limited  number 
of  definitions  were  called  for.  The  purpose  was  rather  to  demon- 
strate the  various  stages  of  definition  than  to  actually  test  the  college 
group.  Beginning  with  definition  "by  use"  at  the  five-year  level, 
the  series  shows  the  development  of  definition  " superior  to  use"  in 
the  eighth  year.  Both  of  these  types  have  a  definite  perceptual 
basis,  and  it  is  not  until  the  twelfth  year  that  the  processes  of  com- 
parison and  generalization  make  possible  the  definition  of  abstract 
terms.  In  the  contrasting  of  abstract  terms,  definition  is  related  to 
the  recognition  of  essential  differences,  discussed  in  a  previous  test. 

For  the  college  student  even  the  most  difficult  test  of  this  series 
can  hardly  be  said  to  present  a  real  problem,  although  in  some 
cases  the  contrast  is  not  clearly  drawn.  While  such  processes  as 
discrimination  and  classification  enter  into  definition,  the  test  may 
be  considered  one  of  intellectual  development  as  displayed  in  language 
ability. 

Humpstone  Memory  Test. 

Description:  The  memory  test  devised  by  H.  J.  Humpstone 
consists  of  twenty  sentences,  each  the  statement  of  some  rather 
obscure  historic  fact  connected  with  the  name  of  some  individual  or 
nation.  These  statements  are  in  the  form  of  the  following  sentence, 
"North  America  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1492".  The  series 
of  twenty  statements  was  read  aloud  to  the  class  three  times,  care 
being  taken  to  pronounce  the  proper  names  and  the  dates  distinctly. 
A  general  discussion,  not  connected  with  the  experiment,  was  then 
entered  into  and  continued  for  forty  minutes.  At  the  expiration  of 
that  period,  the  first  part  of  each  sentence  was  read  and  the  members 
of  the  class  asked  to  record  in  writing  the  name  and  date  connected 
with  the  incident.      For  example,  the  experimenter  might  read 

"North  America  was  discovered  by  ",  the  remainder  of  the 

sentence  being  supplied  by  each  subject.  It  should  be  kept  in  mind 
that  care  was  taken  in  devising  the  test  to  select  historical  incidents 


28 

of  a  trivial  and  therefore  unfamiliar  character.  Since  each  of  the 
twenty  sentences  required  the  recall  of  a  name  and  a  date,  the  results 
were  scored  on  the  basis  of  forty  points.  The  scores  were  distributed 
and  quintiled  in  the  usual  manner. 

Discussion:  Various  types  of  memory  tests  have  been  devised 
and  employed  since  Ebbinghaus  published  his  pioneer  study  in  this 
field.  Some  of  these  have  been  open  to  the  criticism  that  they  test 
associability  rather  than  memory,  others  that  the  material  is  unsatis- 
factory, as  in  the  case  of  nonsense  syllables,  and  still  others  that  the 
time  element  involved  makes  them  impractical  for  use  in  the  class- 
room. The  purpose  in  devising  the  test  here  described  was  to  select 
simple  material  which  at  the  same  time  would  be  unfamiliar,  and 
would  offer  sufficient  points  for  scoring  to  provide  the  necessary 
differentiation  of  results.  It  was  further  desired  to  construct  a  test 
which  might  be  completed  in  the  two-hour  laboratory  period  and  still 
give  sufficient  weight  to  the  factor  of  retentiveness  to  make  the  test 
really  one  of  memory.  The  Humpstone  Test  seems  to  fulfil  these 
requirements  satisfactorily.  The  three  readings  of  the  material 
bring  in  the  element  of  repetition  and  give  a  fair  degree  of  initial 
memorization.  The  interval  and  distraction  provided  by  the  forty- 
minute  discussion  involve  sufficient  retention  to  make  the  test  sig- 
nificant, and  the  fact  that  no  perfect  scores  have  been  made  demon- 
strates that  the  material  chosen  is  of  sufficient  difficulty  for  a  college 
group.  The  method  of  right  associates  employed  in  the  recall  needs 
no  comment  because  of  its  general  acceptance.  The  natural  division 
of  the  recalled  items  into  names  and  dates  has  shown  the  latter  to 
be  more  difficult  of  retention,  as  might  be  anticipated. 

It  is  unnecessary  at  this  point  to  enter  into  an  analytic  study  of 
memory.  The  subject  has  been  so  thoroughly  treated  in  standard 
text-books  and  scientific  researches  as  to  require  no  exposition  here. 
It  will  be  sufficient  to  note  that  the  present  test  adequately  calls 
into  play  the  three  abilities  which  are  chiefly  concerned  in  memory, 
namely,  modifiability,  retentivity,  and  recall. 

Witmer  Cylinder  Test. 

Description:  The  material  here  employed  is  an  adaptation  of 
the  Montessori  cylinders,  and  consists  of  a  circular  board  containing 
recesses  for  eighteen  cylindrical  insets.  These  insets  are  arranged  in 
three  series  of  seven  blocks  each,  the  last  cylinder  of  one  series  being 
also  the  first  of  the  next  series.  In  the  first  series  the  insets  are  all  of 
equal  diameter  and  vary  only  in  height,  in  the  second  the  variation 
is  in  diameter,  the  height  being  constant,  while  the  cylinders  of  the 
third  series  vary  in  both  height  and  diameter.    The  board,  which  is 


29 

approximately  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  contains  a  central  recess 
in  which  all  of  the  blocks  may  be  placed,  the  subject  then  being 
required  to  replace  them  as  quickly  as  possible. 

Each  member  of  the  elementary  class  in  psychology  was  tested 
individually  by  either  Professor  Witmer,  Professor  Twitmyer,  or 
Dr.  Humpstone,  this  being  the  only  one  of  the  series  which  was  not 
given  as  a  group  test.  The  student  was  required  to  stand  before  the 
table  upon  which  the  cylinder  board  was  placed  with  all  of  the  insets 
in  their  proper  recesses.  His  attention  was  called  to  the  fact  that 
the  tops  of  the  different  blocks  were  flush  with  the  top  of  the  board. 
The  insets  were  then  removed  by  the  experimenter  and  placed  in 
the  central  receptacle,  care  being  taken  to  mix  the  blocks  well  and 
at  the  same  time  to  leave  the  larger  cylinders  on  top.  The  subject 
was  then  instructed  to  return  the  blocks  to  their  original  positions 
as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  the  time  required  was  recorded  in  seconds. 
Upon  the  completion  of  the  first  trial  the  cylinders  were  again  removed 
and  the  time  for  the  second  replacement  determined. 

The  results  for  each  of  the  two  trials  were  treated  separately 
and  quintile  ratings  obtained.  In  accordance  with  the  method 
standardized  by  Paschal  (14),  a  final  rating  was  given  by  quintiling 
the  results  for  the  shortest  trial.  The  rating  for  the  first,  second, 
and  shortest  trials  all  appear  in  the  tabulation  of  results. 

Discussion:  While  the  diagnostic  value  of  the  mechanical  test 
has  long  been  recognized,  the  cylinder  test  is  the  only  one  of  this 
type  which  has  been  included  in  the  present  series.  The  test  differs 
from  those  which  have  previously  been  described  in  not  requiring 
any  appreciable  degree  of  language  ability,  and  hence  can  not  be 
considered  in  any  sense  an  index  of  intellectual  level.  If  intelligence 
be  defined  as  the  ability  to  solve  what  for  the  individual  is  a  new 
problem,  the  test  is  primarily  one  of  intelligence.  This,  however,  is 
by  no  means  the  only  ability  involved.  On  the  motor  side  may  be 
observed  the  rate  of  discharge  of  energy,  coordination,  complexity 
of  response,  and  in  some  cases  endurance.  The  performance  like- 
wise displays  some  degree  of  analytic  and  distributed  attention, 
observation,  understanding,  and  trainability  when  more  than  one 
trial  is  given.  While  these  are  not  the  only  abilities  involved,  they 
may  usually  be  rated  with  some  accuracy  on  the  basis  of  the  cylinder 
performance. 

As  Paschal  has  pointed  out,  the  test  has  both  a  qualitative  and 
a  quantitative  aspect.  In  the  present  treatment  of  results,  however, 
only  the  latter  has  been  considered,  since  the  performance  has  been 
rated  solely  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  seconds  required  for  the 
successful  replacement  of  the  insets.     The  qualitative  aspect  of  the 


30 

performance  was  an  important  factor  in  determining  the  competency- 
rating  which  will  be  discussed  in  the  following  section.  In  general, 
the  quality  of  the  performance  must  be  considered  of  more  diagnostic 
significance  than  the  bare  time  element,  although  it  is  evident  that  a 
very  rapid  replacement  can  not  be  made  unless  the  performance  is 
qualitatively  good,  nor  is  it  likely  that  excessive  time  will  be  required 
if  a  satisfactory  method  is  used. 

While  the  quintile  ratings  for  the  first  and  second  trials  have 
been  included  in  the  tabulation  of  results,  it  is  probable  that  the 
rating  for  the  shortest  of  the  two  trials  gives  the  safest  index  of 
cylinder  proficiency.  In  his  standardization  of  the  test  Paschal 
adopted  the  shortest  of  three  trials  as  his  criterion,  and  the  results 
here  obtained  are  therefore  not  directly  comparable  with  those  upon 
which  the  standardization  was  based.  Even  though  the  shortest 
trial  gives  the  most  reliable  basis  for  a  single  rating,  the  comparison 
of  scores  made  on  the  first  and  second  trials  is  important  as  an  index 
of  trainability,  and  these  have  therefore  been  included  in  the  table 
of  results. 

Composite  Test  Rating. 

In  the  treatment  of  results  it  will  be  of  interest  to  compare  the 
records  made  in  the  various  tests  described  above  with  the  score  of 
the  Thurstone  test,  the  rating  on  academic  standing  and  that  on 
estimated  competency.  It  seems  advisable  to  obtain  a  composite 
rating  on  the  basis  of  the  results  for  the  series  of  tests  in  order  to 
facilitate  this  comparison.  Unquestionably,  the  tests  are  not  all  of 
equal  value,  and  some  method  of  weighting  should  be  employed. 
Here,  however,  an  almost  unsolvable  problem  is  encountered,  for 
any  system  of  weighting  the  various  tests  which  might  be  adopted 
would  necessarily  be  arbitrary  and  based  on  an  a  priori  judgment. 
Moreover,  the  significance  of  the  tests  varies  with  the  individual 
case,  and  no  one  method  of  weighting  would  be  really  satisfactory 
for  the  whole  group. 

With  these  difficulties  in  mind,  it  has  been  decided  to  obtain 
a  composite  rating  by  taking  a  simple  average  of  the  quintile  scores 
on  the  thirteen  tests  of  the  series  for  each  individual.  Such  an 
average  has  the  advantage  of  not  being  colored  by  personal  opinions 
of  the  value  of  the  different  tests,  and  is  probably  as  significant  an 
index  as  could  be  devised  by  any  complicated  system  of  weighting. 
This  average  includes  only  the  rating  for  the  shortest  trial  with  the 
Witmer  cylinders. 


31 

The  Competency  Rating. 

One  purpose  of  this  investigation  was  to  determine  what  reliance 
may  be  placed  on  the  ''snap  judgment"  of  a  trained  observer.  Is 
it  possible  to  rate  the  college  student  with  any  degree  of  accuracy  on 
the  basis  of  an  interview  covering  no  more  than  five  minutes?  Can 
the  experienced  psychologist  estimate  the  ability  of  an  individual 
by  noting  his  appearance  and  carriage,  and  by  obtaining  his  reaction 
to  a  few  simple  questions  and  observing  his  performance  with  a 
mechanical  test?  It  was  with  a  view  to  answering  such  questions 
as  these  that  each  member  of  the  first-year  class  in  psychology  was 
personally  interviewed  by  either  Professor  Witmer,  Professor  Twit- 
myer  or  Dr.  Humpstone,  and  given  a  competency  rating  on  the  basis 
of  five  minutes'  observation.  Each  student  was  required  to  replace 
the  insets  of  the  Witmer  cylinder  test  twice,  as  described  in  the 
preceding  section.  The  qualitative  aspect  of  this  performance  had 
considerable  weight  in  determining  the  competency  rating,  and  it 
should  be  understood  that  while  coordination,  attention,  understand- 
ing, trainability  and  intelligence  are  all  reflected  in  the  time  scores 
of  the  two  cylinder  trials,  the  latter  do  not  necessarily  correlate  with 
a  rating  based  on  the  quality  of  the  performance.  As  has  been 
previously  noted,  the  cylinder  test  is  the  only  one  considered  in  this 
study  which  was  given  individually. 

The  rating,  however,  was  not  based  solely  on  the  performance 
with  the  cylinders.  As  the  student  presented  himself  to  the  exami- 
ner, he  was  asked  to  write  his  name  upon  a  record  card,  and  the 
character  of  his  writing  as  well  as  the  degree  of  composure  dis- 
played were  observed.  A  few  leading  questions  were  then  asked 
regarding  preparatory  school,  purpose  in  coming  to  the  University, 
intended  vocation,  outside  activities,  and  the  like.  No  attempt 
was  made  to  ask  the  same  questions  of  each  individual,  but  rather 
to  carry  on  a  short  conversation  which  varied  naturally  with  the 
replies  given.  The  subject  was  then  given  the  cylinder  test,  follow- 
ing the  procedure  previously  outlined,  and  after  answering  one  or 
two  questions  as  to  his  work  in  psychology  was  dismissed.  As  a 
rule  the  whole  interview  consumed  no  more  than  five  minutes. 

While  all  three  of  the  examiners  had  come  into  some  contact 
with  members  of  the  class  through  lecture  work,  no  one  of  them  knew 
the  students  personally  or  had  had  occasion  to  be  familiar  with  the 
type  of  work  done  by  any  individual.  The  rating  was  therefore  based 
entirely  upon  an  observation  of  the  student's  behavior  as  displayed 
in  his  general  bearing  and  address,  his  answers  to  the  questions,  and 
his  performance  with  the  cylinders.  In  this  respect,  the  competency 
rating  here  employed  differs  from  the  rating  on  estimated  intelli- 


32 

gence  which  has  frequently  been  used  in  connection  with  investi- 
gations of  this  character.  Such  a  rating  has  usually  been  given  by 
an  instructor  familiar  with  the  student  and  with  his  work  in  the 
classroom,  or  by  averaging  the  estimates  made  by  a  number  of  in- 
structors so  qualified.  The  competency  rating  is  therefore  not 
directly  comparable  with  the  ratings  on  estimated  intelligence 
referred  to  in  a  preceding  section. 

In  giving  these  ratings,  the  five-point  scale  was  used  in  a  some- 
what modified  form.  Each  of  the  five  points  of  the  scale  was  sub- 
divided into  five  lesser  grades,  thus  giving  a  maximum  rating  of  5.5, 
a  minimum  of  1.1,  and  a  mediocre  grade  of  3.3.  When  each  student 
had  been  rated  on  this  scale,  the  three  examiners  in  conference 
arranged  the  members  of  the  class  in  rank  order  on  the  basis  of  es- 
timated competency.  Since  it  is  felt  that  individual  differences  in 
the  standards  of  the  three  examiners  somewhat  reduces  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  actual  rating  assigned,  the  rank  order  has  been 
employed  in  determining  a  quintile  rating  on  estimated  competency, 
which  appears  in  the  tabulation  of  results.  This  treatment  has  the 
added  advantage  of  making  the  rating  directly  comparable  with  the 
quintile  scores  of  the  various  mental  tests. 

It  will  be  well  to  note  at  this  point  that  there  is  no  objective 
standard  by  which  to  measure  the  accuracy  of  the  competency  ratings. 
In  estimating  the  ability  of  the  student,  the  attempt  was  not  made 
to  predict  the  degree  of  his  success  in  the  study  of  psychology,  nor 
is  the  rating  a  prognosis  of  his  relative  academic  standing  as  deter- 
mined by  the  grades  received  in  all  college  courses.  Neither  can  the 
accuracy  of  the  judgment  be  measured  by  his  performance  in  any  one 
or  in  any  group  of  psychological  tests.  The  term  "competency 
rating",  implying  the  algebraic  sum  of  the  individual's  specific 
abilities  and  disabilities  as  demonstrated  by  his  success  as  a  member 
of  human  society,  best  interprets  the  character  of  the  rating  under 
discussion.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  stated  that  no  ratings 
lower  than  2.3  were  given,  or,  in  other  words,  no  students  were  found 
so  deficient  in  general  competency  as  to  fall  below  the  " doubtful" 
group.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  members  of  the  class  had  under- 
gone a  strenuous  process  of  selection  in  fulfilling  the  entrance  require- 
ments and  surviving  at  least  two  years  of  college  work,  it  is  not 
surprising  to  find  a  complete  absence  of  "  1 "  ratings.  This  fact  does 
not  appear  in  the  tabulation  of  results  where  the  ratings  have  been 
quintiled  on  the  basis  of  rank  order,  and  only  the  quintile  grade  shown. 

Although,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  the  competency  rating  can 
not  be  checked  by  comparison  with  mental  test  scores  or  academic 
record,  it  will  nevertheless  be  profitable  to  determine  in  the  later 


33 

treatment  of  results  whether  the  rating  shows  any  significant  degree 
of  correlation  with  competency  as  displayed  in  the  tests  and  college 
grades. 

Academic  Rating. 

Popular  tradition  has  it  that  the  youth  whose  scholastic  attain- 
ments make  him  valedictorian  of  his  college  class  is  destined  for 
future  mediocrity,  while  the  typical  campus  lounger  whose  academic 
life  is  cut  short  by  a  heartless  faculty  is  sure  to  make  his  mark  in  the 
world  of  success.  Nevertheless  it  will  hardly  be  denied  that  pro- 
ficiency in  the  classroom  is  to  some  degree  indicative  of  individual 
competency,  and  it  will  therefore  be  desirable  to  know  something 
of  the  relative  academic  standing  of  the  fifty  students  under 
consideration. 

While  it  might  be  contended  that  preparatory  school  records 
would  be  significant  in  determining  a  rating  on  scholastic  merit,  the 
great  variation  in  standards  and  the  incomparability  of  the  various 
grading  systems  employed  make  it  advisable  to  reject  this  suggestion 
without  further  deliberation.  Moreover,  since  grades  for  at  least 
two  years  of  college  work  are  available  for  each  member  of  the  group, 
it  seems  unnecessary  to  base  the  academic  rating  on  any  work  other 
than  that  done  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

As  has  previously  been  stated,  a  five-point  system  of  grading  is 
employed  in  the  School  of  Arts  and  Science.  This  scheme  provides 
three  symbols  for  work  of  passing  grade,  while  two  are  reserved  for 
that  of  an  unsatisfactory  character.  To  be  more  specific,  the  letters 
"D",  "G",  "P",  "N",  and  "F"  are  assigned,  signifying  Distin- 
guished, Good,  Passed,  Not  Passed  (conditioned),  and  Failure, 
respectively.  A  student  receiving  a  grade  of  "N"  in  a  course  may 
relieve  himself  of  the  condition  by  passing  a  re-examination,  while 
the  grade  "F"  necessitates  the  repetition  of  the  course.  As  applied 
to  the  courses  in  psychology,  an  "N"  in  Psychology  1  permits  the 
student  to  continue  his  work  in  Psychology  2,  but  this  permission  is 
not  given  when  "F"  is  received  in  the  first  course.  It  will  be  noted, 
therefore,  that  no  member  of  the  present  group  received  a  grade  of 
"F"  in  Psychology  1,  since  each  of  the  fifty  students  completed  both 
courses  in  the  academic  year  1919-20. 

While  it  must  be  understood  that  the  letter  system  of  grading 
is  intended  to  obviate  the  pseudo-accuracy  of  the  percentile  grade, 
and  that  it  is  not  possible  to  assign  percentile  equivalents  for  the 
symbols  used,  the  necessity  for  obtaining  some  kind  of  composite 
rating  as  an  index  of  academic  standing  is  evident.  For  example,  a 
given  student  may  have  received  a  grade  of  "D"  in  five  courses, 


34 

"G"  in  eight,  "P"  in  four,  and  "N"  in  two.  Moreover,  each  course 
may  have  required  from  one  to  nine  hours  of  class  attendance  per 
week,  with  a  value  of  from  one  to  four  units  of  credit,  a  unit  being 
the  equivalent  of  one  hour  of  lecture  work  or  two  hours  of  laboratory 
work  per  week  for  the  academic  year.  Hence  it  is  clear  that  the 
grades  must  be  considered  in  terms  of  units  of  credit  rather  than  by 
courses  if  a  significant  rating  is  to  be  obtained,  and  also  that  some 
numerical  translation  of  the  letter  grades  must  be  devised. 

Since  the  percentile  scale  is  not  recognized  in  the  University 
marking  system,  any  numerical  equivalents  which  might  be  adopted 
would  necessarily  be  arbitrary.  Roughly,  it  may  be  said  that  "D" 
represents  a  range  from  90  to  100  per  cent,  "G"  from  80  to  90,  and 
"P"  from  70  to  80.  There  seems  to  be  no  justification,  however, 
for  selecting  70  per  cent  as  the  marking  mark,  nor  would  it  be  more 
accurate  to  place  it  at  60  per  cent.  A  satisfactory  evaluation  of  the 
"N"  and  "F"  is  even  more  confusing.  While  the  passing  grades 
might  be  valued  at  95,  85,  and  70,  respectively,  it  would  be  difficult 
to  decide  whether  the  "F",  which  ranges  from  zero  to  50  per  cent 
should  be  rated  as  25  or  45.  By  far  the  simplest  solution  to  the 
problem,  and  what  seems  to  be  the  most  logical,  is  to  adopt  here 
the  five-point  scale  generally  employed  in  this  study.  It  is  quite 
as  reasonable  to  represent  the  five-letter  grades  by  the  numbers  5, 
4,  3,  2,  and  1,  as  by  any  other  numerical  values  which  might  be 
suggested,  and  this  method  has  the  advantage  of  permitting  a  direct 
comparison  between  the  composite  rating  for  college  grades  and  that 
for  mental  tests.  It  has  been  determined,  moreover,  that  the  rank 
order  remains  approximately  the  same  whether  this  system  is  used 
or  the  values  95,  85,  70,  55,  and  45  be  given  to  the  letter  grades. 

The  academic  rating  has  therefore  been  determined  by  multiply- 
ing the  number  of  units  assigned  each  letter  grade  by  the  appro- 
priate digit,  and  dividing  the  sum  of  these  products  by  the  total 
number  of  units  graded.  The  student  who  had  received  no  grades 
lower  than  "D"  would  have  a  rating  of  5.0,  while  a  record  with  an 
equal  number  of  "G"  and  "D"  units  would  average  4.5.  Since  it 
would  be  almost  impossible  for  a  student  to  remain  in  college  who 
had  not  averaged  the  passing  grade,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that 
only  one  of  the  fifty  has  an  average  below  3.0,  his  rating  being  2.9. 

Perhaps  even  a  rating  of  this  kind  implies  an  accuracy  of  mea- 
surement which  cannot  be  justified.  If  every  "D"  assigned  as  a 
final  grade  stands  for  the  same  level  of  excellence,  and  if  the  same 
amount  of  work  is  required  for  a  passing  grade  in  every  course,  then 
the  validity  of  the  average  rating  cannot  be  questioned.  If,  however, 
one  department  of  the  college  is  found  to  be  giving  the  highest  grade 


35 

to  25  per  cent  of  its  students,  while  a  second  allows  only  5  per  cent 
of  "D"s,  then  the  impossibility  of  comparing  grades  assigned  by 
different  departments  is  evident.  Moreover,  it  has  been  demon- 
strated that  different  instructors  in  the  same  department  vary  greatly 
in  the  grades  which  they  assign  to  a  given  piece  of  work,  and  that 
this  variation  is  no  greater  than  that  which  will  be  shown  by  one 
instructor  marking  the  same  work  at  different  times.  It  is  indeed 
questionable  whether  any  reliance  should  be  placed  in  a  comparison 
of  college  grades  in  an  institution  where  the  majority  of  the  courses 
are  elective,  and  where  there  is  no  general  supervision  of  grading. 

The  grading  problem  is  by  no  means  a  new  one,  and  has  a  con- 
siderable literature  of  its  own.  Finkelstein  (15),  for  example,  has 
published  an  interesting  study  of  conditions  at  Cornell  University  in 
which  he  demonstrates  the  need  for  supervision  of  the  grades  assigned 
by  different  departments  by  showing  that  some  instructors  are  typi- 
cally low  markers.  He  makes  a  plea  for  the  adoption  of  a  five-division 
system  of  grading  with  the  provision  that  the  grades  given  by  any 
instructor  shall  not  deviate  in  the  long  run  from  a  distribution  agreed 
upon.  While  the  intention  of  the  present  study  is  not  to  preach  the 
necessity  of  some  such  general  supervision  of  grading  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  the  existing  absence  of  uniformity  demands  com- 
ment. Under  the  present  curriculum,  a  student  in  the  School  of  Arts 
and  Science  is  required  to  complete  a  specified  number  of  units  of  work 
in  each  " group"  of  subjects.  In  most  cases  he  is  free  to  elect  which 
courses  he  will  pursue  in  a  given  group.  For  example,  six  units  of 
credit  is  required  in  the  Biological  Science  Group  which  is  composed 
of  courses  in  botany,  zoology  and  psychology,  but  the  decision  as  to 
whether  all  six  units  be  taken  in  one  subject  or  be  distributed  between 
two  is  left  entirely  to  the  student,  as  well  as  the  choice  of  the  subject 
or  subjects  to  be  elected.  Until  recently  the  elementary  work  in  one 
of  the  three  subjects  has  been  so  much  less  difficult  than  that  in  the 
other  two,  that  the  situation  has  been  fully  recognized  by  the  under- 
graduate, with  a  consequent  influx  to  the  easier  course.  While  this 
condition  has  been  remedied  in  the  case  cited,  it  doubtless  still  exists 
in  other  groups,  and  the  present  plea  is  made  rather  with  the  purpose 
of  calling  attention  to  the  lack  of  general  supervision  of  grade  dis- 
tributions than  as  a  criticism  of  any  particular  instance  of  non-con- 
formity. Although  the  necessity  of  some  general  supervision  of  all 
grades  assigned  in  the  college  cannot  be  overlooked,  the  more  pressing 
need  of  uniformity  within  the  various  groups  must  be  emphasized. 

From  the  foregoing  discussion  it  is  evident  that  grades  assigned 
by  various  instructors  in  different  departments  of  the  University  are 
not  really  comparable,  and  it  is  with  this  understanding  that  the 


36 

academic  record  will  be  included  in  the  present  investigation.  Even 
though  the  data  cannot  be  considered  scientifically  accurate,  however, 
it  must  be  admitted  that  the  student's  college  grades  do  give  some 
indication  of  his  scholastic  ability.  The  grades  alone  determine 
whether  he  is  to  receive  academic  honors  or  be  dropped  by  the 
Executive  Committee  for  general  deficiency,  as  well  playing  an 
important  part  in  election  to  Phi  Beta  Kappa  and  in  placement  after 
graduation. 

In  the  tabulation  of  results,  the  final  grades  for  the  two  courses 
in  psychology  will  be  noted  in  addition  to  the  average  rating  for  all 
college  grades  including  those  in  psychology.  The  latter  are  given 
separately  since  it  is  felt  that  the  unusual  opportunity  for  personal 
contact  between  instructor  and  student  in  the  elementary  courses  in 
this  department  makes  these  grades  somewhat  more  significant  than 
is  generally  the  case. 

In  conclusion,  it  seems  almost  unnecessary  to  point  to  the  fact 
that  similar  grades  may  not  mean  the  same  thing  when  assigned  to 
different  students  even  in  the  same  course.  Although  the  attempt 
is  made  to  control  the  amount  of  work  done  by  fixing  the  maximum 
as  well  as  the  minimum  number  of  units  which  may  be  taken  by  a 
student  in  a  semester,  some  carry  so  full  a  roster  as  to  seriously 
interfere  with  the  display  of  actual  ability,  while  others  who  are  not 
experiencing  great  success  with  a  comparatively  light  schedule  may 
be  handicapped  by  outside  work  which  they  are  pursuing  as  a  means 
of  livelihood.  Since  the  evaluation  of  these  distributing  factors  is 
well  nigh  impossible,  they  must  be  ignored  in  the  present  treatment 
of  college  grades. 

Tabulation  of  Results. 

While  it  was  intended  to  make  a  statistical  study  of  the  various 
scores  and  ratings  which  form  a  basis  for  this  investigation,  the 
primary  purpose  was  to  study  the  individual  record  rather  than  the 
mass  results.  It  has  therefore  been  deemed  advisable  to  present  a 
complete  tabulation  of  the  ratings  for  each  member  of  the  group, 
and  thereby  facilitate  the  scrutiny  of  the  individual  case.  In  the 
following  table  will  be  found  (1)  the  number  used  to  designate  each 
student  in  the  group,  (2)  his  class,  whether  sophomore,  junior,  or 
senior,  (3)  the  quintile  rating  for  the  Thurstone  test,  (4)  the  quintile 
rating  for  each  of  the  thirteen  mental  tests  with  the  addition  of  the 
ratings  for  the  first  and  second  trials  with  the  cylinders,  (5)  the  com- 
posite test  rating  obtained  by  averaging  the  ratings  for  the  thirteen 
separate  tests — this  average  does  not  include  the  Thurstone  test  and 
only  the  shortest  trial  with  the  cylinders  is  included,  (6)  the  quintile 


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P 

G 

38 

So. 

2 

- 

2 

4 

3 

2 

2 

1 

3 

3 

3 

4 

3 

4 

4 

4 

2.8 

2 

3.0 

P 

P 

39 

So. 

1 

1 

4 

3 

3 

8 

1 

2 

1 

2 

3 

3 

2 

4 

5 

4 

2.7 

2 

3.1 

P 

P 

40 

So. 

4 

1 

3 

2 

4 

4 

3 

3 

4 

2 

3 

4 

5 

1 

1 

1 

3.0 

1 

3.9 

G 

P 

41 

So. 

3 

5 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

2 

5 

3 

4 

4 

2 

5 

5 

1 

3.2 

5 

3.5 

G 

G 

42 

So. 

5 

5 

3 

2 

3 

4 

5 

5 

2 

3 

2 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

3.6 

5 

4.5 

G 

D 

43 

Jr. 

3 

5 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

5 

2 

3 

3 

5 

3 

1 

1 

1 

3.1 

1 

3.2 

P 

P 

44 

So. 

3 

5 

4 

2 

4 

4 

3 

4 

3 

3 

- 

4 

4 

3 

5 

3 

3.6 

4 

4.2 

G 

G 

45 

So. 

3 

1 

5 

2 

2 

3 

2 

1 

3 

3 

1 

4 

3 

1 

2 

1 

2.4 

2 

4.1 

P 

P 

46 

Sr. 

2 

4 

4 

2 

3 

2 

3 

3 

5 

4 

4 

4 

- 

5 

6 

5 

3.6 

5 

2.9 

P 

N 

47 

So. 

5 

4 

2 

3 

3 

4 

3 

4 

5 

4 

2 

- 

- 

1 

1 

1 

3.0 

2 

3.5 

N 

F 

48 

Jr. 

5 

5 

- 

5 

4 

3 

- 

I 

1 

5 

3 

6 

4 

5 

5 

5 

3.7 

5 

3.4 

G 

P 

49 

So. 

2 

4 

2 

2 

6 

1    1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

2 

4 

1 

2.5 

2 

3.7 

P 

N 

50 

Jr. 

5 

2    1 

3 

4 

311 

1 

1 

3 

2 

2 

5 

3 

1 

3| 

2.4 

3 

3.9 

G 

P 

38 

rating  based  on  estimated  competency,  (7)  the  final  grades  in  Psy- 
chology 1  and  Psychology  2,  (8)  the  academic  rating  obtained  by 
averaging  college  grades  as  previously  described. 

In  studying  the  tabulation  of  results  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  in  every  case  the  quintile  rating  was  obtained  from  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  results  of  the  class  of  approximately  two  hundred 
students,  and  not  merely  on  the  basis  of  the  fifty  here  included. 
This  explains  the  fact  that  the  ratings  are  not  equally  divided  among 
the  five  quintiles. 

Discussion  of  Results. 

In  considering  the  data  tabulated  on  the  preceding  page,  it  will 
first  be  of  interest  to  determine  whether  any  significant  correlations 
exist  between  the  various  ratings  given  for  the  group  as  a  whole,  and 
then  to  study  the  results  for  the  individual  student.  It  will  be 
valuable  to  ascertain,  for  example,  whether  the  rating  for  the  Thur- 
stone  test  correlates  with  the  average  score  for  the  series  of  more 
specialized  mental  tests.  Since  general  intelligence  may  be  looked 
upon  as  an  average  of  the  specific  abilities  of  the  individual,  a  high 
correlation  might  well  be  expected  between  these  two  ratings.  Each 
of  these,  in  turn,  must  be  compared  with  the  rating"  on  estimated 
competency,  and  it  will  likewise  be  profitable  to  observe  whether 
any  one  of  these  three  ratings  may  be  considered  an  index  of  pro- 
ficiency in  college  work. 

With  this  purpose  in  view  a  series  of  intercorrelations  has  been 
calculated  between  the  ratings  assigned  for  the  four  general  divisions 
of  the  results.  In  each  case  the  coefficient  of  correlation  was  ob- 
tained by  the  Pearson  method.  The  data  employed  consists  of  the 
quintile  grade  on  the  Thurstone  test,  the  average  rating  for  the 
thirteen  mental  tests,  the  quintile  rating  on  estimated  competency, 
and  the  average  rating  for  college  grades. 

Correlations. 

Competency  rating  with  mental  tests r  =  +0.49 

Thurstone  test  with  mental  tests r  =  +0.40 

Thurstone  test  with  college  grades r  =  +0.39 

Thurstone  test  with  competency  rating r  =  +0.36 

College  grades  with  mental  tests r  =  +0.21 

College  grades  with  competency  rating. ...  r  =  +0.10 

A  mere  inspection  of  the  coefficients  listed  above  will  show  that 
while  all  of  the  correlations  are  positive,  not  one  can  be  considered 


39 

significant.  In  general,  it  may  be  stated  that  coefficients  between 
-f 0.30  and  -f-0.75  show  that  the  same  factors  are  operative  in  the 
two  series  to  some  degree,  but  the  correlation  can  hardly  be  regarded 
as  significant  unless  a  coefficient  greater  than  +0.75  is  found.  An 
immediate  conclusion  can  therefore  be  drawn  either  to  the  effect 
that  the  values  employed  are  not  to  be  relied  upon,  or  that  the  per- 
formances rated  in  the  four  cases  did  not  involve  the  same  factors 
or  abilities.  Nevertheless,  it  will  be  of  interest  to  scrutinize  the 
coefficients  obtained  more  closely,  and  to  attempt  to  interpret 
them. 

The  highest  correlation  of  the  series  is  found  to  exist  between 
the  rating  for  estimated  competency  and  that  for  mental  tests.  This 
is  not  surprising  since  the  competency  rating  was  given  largely  on 
the  basis  of  the  performance  displayed  in  the  solution  of  one  of  these 
tests.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  cylinder  test  calls  into  play  so 
many  of  the  abilities  which  enter  into  other  tests  of  the  series,  it  is 
rather  surprising  that  the  correlation  did  not  prove  greater.  This 
can  probably  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  cylinder  test  does 
not  involve  language  ability,  which  is  an  important  factor  in  prac- 
tically all  of  the  other  tests. 

Next  in  order  is  found  the  correlation  between  the  Thurstone 
test  and  the  mental  test  rating.  As  has  been  pointed  out,  both  of 
these  ratings  may  in  a  sense  be  considered  indices  of  general  intelli- 
gence, and  since  many  tests  in  the  series  involve  intellectual  pro- 
cesses similar  to  those  called  for  in  the  Thurstone  examination,  the 
low  correlation  displayed  here  is  again  unexpected.  However,  the 
weight  given  to  the  time  element  in  the  latter  test  is  so  great,  and 
the  range  of  abilities  involved  so  much  more  restricted  than  in  the 
Pennsylvania  series,  that  it  is  not  difficult  to  account  for  the  seeming 
inconsistency  of  the  results. 

The  very  low  correlations  obtained  between  the  academic  rating 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  mental  test  and  competency  ratings  on  the 
other,  provide  food  for  serious  reflection.  The  question  which  must 
naturally  arise  is  whether  academic  proficiency,  as  it  is  evaluated  in 
our  colleges  today,  is  really  an  index  of  the  competency  of  the  student. 
Perhaps  it  will  be  well  to  notice  whether  the  low  correlation  shown 
here  is  typical  of  other  similar  investigations.  In  the  report  by 
Caldwell  (7)  previously  referred  to,  appears  a  summary  of  the  results 
obtained  by  other  experimenters  showing  correlations  obtained  be- 
tween various  series  of  mental  tests  and  college  grades.  In  this  con- 
nection, it  is  unnecessary  to  note  in  detail  the  character  of  the  tests 
used  by  each  of  the  investigators,  and  merely  a  statement  of  the 
correlations  obtained,  as  cited  by  Caldwell,  is  shown  below. 


40 

Correlation  of  Test  Results  with  College  Grades. 

Wissler 0.09 

Calfee 0.23 

Rowland  and  Lowden 0.37 

Waugh 0.41 

Kitson 0.44 

King  and  McCrory 0.39 

Caldwell 0.44 

While  the  correlations  above  are  in  most  cases  greater  than  that 
obtained  in  the  present  investigation,  namely  0.21,  it  will  be  noted 
that  not  in  a  single  instance  was  a  significant  coefficient  shown. 
Rogers  (8)  does  not  even  attempt  to  calculate  a  coefficient  of  corre- 
lation between  test  results  and  college  grades,  but  states  that  "to 
predict  an  individual's  probable  status  in  academic  work  from  his 
performance  in  the  tests  would  obviously  be  rash  ".  As  has  previously 
been  stated,  a  comparison  of  the  competency  rating  with  ratings  on 
estimated  intelligence  cited  in  other  investigations  is  hardly  possible, 
since  in  this  case  the  estimate  was  made  by  an  individual  unfamiliar 
with  the  students  rated.  It  is  well  to  note,  however,  that  even  where 
intelligence  was  graded  by  instructors  well  acquainted  with  their 
students,  correlations  with  college  grades  have  not  exceeded  0.60. 

From  the  facts  given  above  it  is  possible  to  arrive  at  three  con- 
clusions. In  the  first  place,  college  grades  may  not  actually  reflect 
the  mentality  of  the  student,  or  secondly,  the  tests  employed  are 
inadequate  or  misleading,  or  finally,  the  factors  which  enter  into  the 
assignment  of  college  grades  are  not  the  same  as  those  which  are 
measured  in  psychological  tests.  Probably  all  three  of  these  con- 
clusions are  in  some  degree  justified. 

Voice  has  been  given  recently  to  much  criticism  of  the  present 
university  curricula  on  the  grounds  of  impracticality  and  because  of 
the  continuation  of  secondary  school  pedagogical  methods  in  insti- 
tutions of  higher  learning.  On  the  other  hand,  a  large  proportion  of 
the  instruction  in  our  colleges  today  is  given  by  means  of  lectures. 
The  grade  assigned  at  the  end  of  the  course  is  often  determined 
chiefly  by  the  student's  ability  to  give  back  on  an  examination  paper 
certain  information  which  has  been  fed  to  him  in  lectures  during  the 
term.  Frequently,  little  intelligence  is  called  for  and  the  student  is 
rated  either  on  the  excellence  of  his  memory  or  on  the  degree  of 
industry  with  which  he  compensates  for  a  deficiency  in  that  ability. 
When  to  this  criticism  of  university  instruction  is  added  the  unreli- 
ability of  the  grades  themselves,  as  discussed  more  fully  in  an  earlier 
section,  it  is  evident  that  the  low  correlation  between  college  grades 


41 

and  test  results  may  be  in  part  due  to  shortcomings  of  the  educational 
system  both  as  regards  methods  of  instruction  and  grading. 

In  scrutinizing  psychological  tests  as  a  whole  or  the  series  em- 
ployed here  in  particular,  certain  criticisms  must  be  made.  Perhaps 
the  exaggeration  of  the  importance  of  the  time  element  is  the  most 
serious  fault  with  the  majority  of  mental  tests.  Intellectual  dex- 
terity is  generally  measured  rather  than  organization  and  usability 
of  knowledge.  The  difficulty  is  increased  in  this  case  by  the  homo- 
geneity of  the  group  tested.  Many  of  the  tests  would  be  significant 
when  applied  to  individuals  less  carefully  selected  and  at  a  lower 
level  of  mental  development.  In  most  cases  the  problem  presented 
is  too  easy  to  tax  the  college  student,  and  the  speed  of  reaction  is 
the  only  ability  measured.  Another  criticism  which  may  be  made  of 
tests  in  general,  is  that  they  do  not  measure  with  sufficient  accuracy 
the  abilities  which  they  are  designed  to  gauge.  In  other  words,  a 
subject  does  not  always  give  the  same  score  on  the  same  or  equivalent 
tests  due  to  variations  in  attention,  interest,  physical  condition,  etc. 
Mental  testing  will  not  be  scientifically  accurate  until  the  technique 
has  been  so  refined  as  to  greatly  reduce  the  probable  error  of  the 
score,  or  until  a  higher  reliability  coefficient  can  be  obtained.  The 
low  correlation  between  college  grades  and  mental  tests  may,  then, 
be  due  to  shortcomings  of  the  latter  as  well  as  to  inaccuracies  of  the 
former. 

It  seems  reasonable,  however,  to  believe  that  this  lack  of  corre- 
spondence can  be  attributed  largely  to  the  fact  that  college  work 
involves  other  factors  than  those  measured  by  any  series  of  psycho- 
logical tests  which  has  yet  been  devised.  In  addition  to  the  mental 
abilities  which  go  to  make  up  the  competency  of  the  individual,  the 
factor  of  motivation  plays  a  most  important  r61e  in  academic  success. 
It  is  possible  to  conceive  of  two  students  of  approximately  equal 
competency,  one  of  whom  is  inspired  by  the  desire  to  excel  in  intellec- 
tual pursuits,  while  the  other  is  in  college  for  the  purpose  of  enjoying 
social  or  athletic  advantages.  The  intense  interest  and  industry  of 
the  first  is  likely  to  result  in  a  higher  academic  rating  than  would 
be  predicted  from  his  performance  in  series  of  mental  tests,  while 
just  the  opposite  is  true  in  the  case  of  the  second  student.  While 
it  is  fair  to  believe,  therefore,  that  psychological  tests  can  be  em- 
ployed to  select  those  students  who  have  the  ability  to  succeed  in 
college,  they  will  not  form  an  adequate  basis  upon  which  to  predict 
academic  success  until  some  means  has  been  devised  of  measuring 
motive  in  quantitative  terms.  The  final  solution  of  the  problem 
will  be  reached  when  more  accurate  methods  of  assigning  college 
grades  have  been  adopted,  and  those  grades  depend  more  on  the 


42 

higher  thought  processes  and  less  on  memory,  and  when,  on  the 
other  hand,  psychological  tests  have  been  made  more  difficult,  place 
less  stress  on  the  time  element,  and  include  some  index  of  motivation. 

Althought  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  formulation  of  a  series 
of  mental  tests  which  will  accurately  predict  success  in  college  work 
is  desirable,  no  great  benefit  would  accrue  thereby  either  to  the 
science  of  psychology  or  to  the  field  of  education.  The  psychologist 
is  not  so  much  interested  in  the  abilities  which  determine  college 
grades,  as  in  evaluating  the  particular  mental  assets  and  liabilities 
which  characterize  the  individual.  While  the  general  intelligence 
rating,  which  represents  the  summation  of  the  scores  in  a  number 
of  tests,  is  doubtless  of  some  significance,  the  analysis  of  such  a 
rating  so  as  to  show  the  peculiar  abilities  and  disabilities  of  the 
individual  is  of  much  greater  importance  from  the  point  of  view  of 
psychology.  An  inspection  of  the  results  shown  in  the  preceding 
tabulation  reveals  the  fact  that  although  two  students  may  have 
the  same  average  test  rating,  the  scores  obtained  in  the  different 
tests  are  not  really  reflected  in  this  average.  Of  two  individuals 
who  had  an  average  rating  of  3.3  in  the  thirteen  tests  and  who 
received  the  same  quintile  rating  on  the  Thurstone  test,  one  was 
placed  in  the  third  quintile  in  nine  of  the  tests,  the  other  in  only 
three.  Obviously  the  first  student  showed  consistent  mediocre 
ability,  while  the  second  displayed  considerable  variation  in  the 
different  tests,  having  four  ratings  of  "5",  three  of  "2",  and  one  "  1 ". 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  latter  student  provides  the  more  interesting 
material  for  psychological  study  and  for  vocational  guidance. 

Since  it  is  believed  that  the  present  investigation  is  significant 
rather  in  the  analysis  of  individual  competency  than  in  the  correla- 
tion of  group  results,  it  will  be  the  purpose  in  the  following  section 
to  scrutinize  the  record  of  each  member  of  the  group  and  to  deter- 
mine whether  any  conclusions  of  value  in  diagnosis  or  guidance  can 
be  reached.  In  considering  the  academic  rating  it  is  well  to  note 
that  ratings  higher  than  4.0  are  very  good,  while  those  below  3.5  are 
poor.  The  median  academic  rating  for  the  group  is  3.7.  Composite 
test  ratings  above  2.9  and  below  3.5  are  considered  mediocre,  with  the 
median  rating  at  3.2. 

Analysis  of  Individual  Records. 

No.  1. 

This  student  shows  a  consistently  mediocre  record  until  his 

college  grades  are  observed,  when  he  is  found  to  have  one  of  the 

highest  academic  ratings  of  the  group.    Placed  in  the  middle  quintile 

in  the  Thurstone  test  as  well  as  in  estimated  competency,  his  average 


43 

test  rating  is  well  below  the  median.  As  for  the  separate  tests,  he 
has  received  the  highest  rating  in  none,  and  the  lowest  only  in  the 
memory  span  for  digits.  In  general,  the  higher  scores  are  exhibited 
in  those  tests  which  involve  language  ability  and  memory,  and  the 
lower  where  these  factors  are  not  prominent,  namely,  in  the  Taylor 
number  test,  the  Courtis  test,  and  the  cylinders.  In  view  of  the 
high  grades  in  psychology  and  the  high  academic  rating  it  seems 
probable  that  this  student  has  some  strong  motive,  such  as  ambition, 
and  supplements  a  mediocre  intellect  with  an  unusual  amount  of 
industry. 

No.  2. 

This  record  shows  the  most  consistently  high  rating  to  be  found 
in  the  group.  The  academic  record  is  the  highest,  and  this  is  borne 
out  by  "  distinguished "  grades  in  both  courses  in  psychology.  The 
ratings  for  estimated  competency  and  for  the  Thurstone  test  are 
both  in  the  fifth  quintile,  while  the  average  test  rating  is  equaled 
by  only  one  other  student  in  the  group.  In  considering  the  results 
of  the  particular  tests,  it  will  be  observed  that  this  student  has  not 
fallen  below  the  middle  quintile,  but  has  reached  the  highest  in  only 
three  tests.  He  shows  the  poorer  scores  in  those  tests  which  stress 
language  ability  and  memory,  and  the  higher  ratings  where  intel- 
ligence, imagination  and  attention  are  involved.  The  general  level 
of  performance  is  so  high  as  to  make  any  specific  recommendation 
or  prognosis  unsafe. 

No.  3. 

The  chief  point  of  interest  in  this  case  is  the  lack  of  correspond- 
ence between  the  competency  rating  and  the  remainder  of  the  data 
at  hand.  This  student  shows  an  academic  rating  which  places  him 
in  the  poorest  fifth  of  the  group,  with  conditions  for  both  courses  in 
psychology.  Although  in  the  second  quintile  in  the  Thurstone  test, 
his  average  test  rating  is  one  of  the  lowest  recorded.  He  rates  above 
the  middle  quintile  only  in  the  sentence  completion  and  cylinder 
tests.  This  may  indicate  good  intelligence  not  directed  toward 
college  work,  but  the  conclusion  that  the  competency  rating  is  too 
high  in  this  case  seems  justified. 

No.  4. 
The  indication  here  is  of  a  student  of  somewhat  more  than 
average  general  intelligence  whose  record  is  largely  influenced  by 
interest  in  the  task  at  hand.  With  an  academic  rating  slightly 
above  the  average  and  a  "G"  and  "P"  in  psychology,  his  score  in  the 
Thurstone  test  puts  him  in  the  highest  quintile.  The  composite  test 
rating  is  slightly  above  the  average,  and  shows  a  preponderance  of 


44 

"5's"  as  well  as  a  number  of  "2's"  and  a  "1".  High  ratings  in  the 
memory  span  for  ideas,  the  sentence  completion  and  the  definitions 
tests,  as  contrasted  with  a  very  poor  cylinder  performance,  indicate 
intellectual  ability  rather  than  intelligence. 

No.  5. 
This  record  shows  a  student  somewhat  below  the  average  in 
competency,  with  an  academic  rating  slightly  better  than  would  be 
expected  from  the  test  results.  Passing  grades  in  both  courses  in 
psychology,  estimated  competency  in  the  second  quintile,  and  the 
median  rating  for  the  Thurstone  test  all  indicate  mediocre  ability. 
This  is  borne  out  by  an  average  test  rating  below  the  mean  for  the 
group.  Performances  in  the  memory  spans  for  digits  and  ideas,  and 
in  the  definitions  and  memory  tests  were  rated  in  the  lowest  quintile. 
High  scores  were  obtained  in  the  Ausfrage  and  Courtis  tests  and  in 
the  second  trial  with  the  cylinders.  Although  the  test  results  show 
great  variation,  there  seems  to  be  no  definite  tendency  displayed. 

No.  6. 
This  individual  probably  possesses  mediocre  ability,  although 
receiving  a  very  low  competency  rating  and  a  very  high  score  on 
the  Thurstone  test.  A  fair  academic  rating  with  passing  work  in 
psychology,  and  a  test  rating  slightly  below  the  average  seem  to 
indicate  that  neither  the  Thurstone  test  nor  the  competency  rating 
gives  a  true  picture  of  the  student.  High  scores  in  the  Ausfrage, 
digit  span,  Trabue,  opposites  and  memory  tests,  with  very  poor 
cylinder  performances,  would  suggest  fair  intellect  coupled  with 
rather  deficient  intelligence. 

No.  7. 
The  record  here  indicates  relatively  low  competency  with  a 
high  degree  of  native  intelligence.  A  very  poor  academic  rating  is 
substantiated  by  a  condition  and  a  failure  in  the  two  courses  in 
psychology,  and  a  low  average  test  rating.  An  exceptionally  good 
performance  with  the  cylinders  and  a  high  rating  on  the  Thurstone 
test  and  the  idea  span,  with  lower  scores  on  the  test  requiring  language 
ability  and  memory,  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  this  man  is  misplaced 
in  college,  but  would  probably  succeed  in  a  pursuit  which  does  not 
stress  intellectual  development. 

No.  8. 

There  are  no  outstanding  features  in  the  record  of  this  student. 

The  academic  rating  and  the  Thurstone  score  are  both  slightly 

above  the  average,  while  the  test  rating  is  somewhat  below.     The 

tests  which  emphasize  the  intellectual  side  usually  show  good  scores, 


45 

while  those  which  do  not  depend  on  language  ability,  such  as  the 
Taylor  number,  the  Courtis,  and  the  cylinder  tests,  are  placed  in  the 
lower  quintiles.     On  the  whole,  the  record  is  mediocre. 

No.  9. 
In  this  instance,  a  high  academic  rating,  good  work  in  psychology, 
a  high  competency  rating  and  a  good  score  on  the  Thurstone  test 
fail  to  correlate  with  a  rather  low  test  rating.  Median  scores  on  seven 
of  the  tests,  with  only  one  result  in  the  highest  and  one  in  the  lowest 
quintile,  indicate  a  rather  consistent  mediocrity.  A  high  rating 
in  the  memory  test  and  an  excellent  cylinder  performance  suggest 
that  good  memory  and  intelligence  are  responsible  for  the  high 
academic  standing. 

No.  10. 
A  competency  rating  of  "4"  indicates  that  this  man  was  not 
doing  his  best  on  the  mental  tests.  Mediocre  college  work  and  a 
low  rating  on  the  Thurstone  test  suggest  that  the  competency  rating 
is  too  high.  The  test  scores  are  generally  low  where  language  ability 
is  involved,  and  are  above  the  average  for  the  Taylor,  idea  span, 
memory  and  cylinder  tests.  As  in  Case  7,  it  seems  likely  that  this 
individual  is  not  profiting  by  his  college  course  and  would  be  more 
successful  in  some  other  line  of  activity. 

No.  11. 

The  record  of  this  student  is  quite  inconsistent.  Placed  in 
the  lowest  quintile  in  the  Thurstone  test  and  competency  rating, 
his  test  and  academic  ratings  are  well  above  the  average.  The  low 
score  in  the  first  cylinder  trial  indicates  a  lack  of  intelligence,  while 
the  marked  improvement  on  the  second  trial  indicates  good  train- 
ability.  The  low  rating  on  the  Trabue  test  and  idea  span,  contrasted 
with  high  ratings  for  the  Courtis  and  Humpstone  memory  tests, 
suggest  an  efficient  and  retentive  mind  rather  than  a  quick  and 
imaginative  one.  That  this  man  is  a  slow  thinker  is  demonstrated  by 
his  score  on  the  Thurstone  test.  The  fact  that  he  retains  and  digests 
the  information  which  he  acquires  is  evidenced  by  his  high  academic 
record. 

No.  12. 

This  student  displays  a  record  consistently  near  the  average  for 
the  group.  The  Thurstone  and  academic  ratings  are  somewhat  better 
than  the  mean,  the  competency  rating  is  in  the  third  quintile,  and  the 
test  rating  slightly  below  the  average.  Of  the  separate  tests,  seven 
are  rated  in  the  third  quintile,  a  poor  score  on  digit  span  and  a  very 
high  rating  on  the  Trabue  test  being  the  only  significant  scores. 


46 

On  the  whole,  the  competency  rating  seems  to  express  the  ability  of 
the  student  adequately. 

No.  13. 

The  record  in  this  case  is  consistently  high.  Very  good  grades 
in  the  two  courses  in  psychology  substantiate  an  academic  rating 
which  is  exceeded  by  only  three  members  of  the  group.  A  competency 
rating  of  "5"  and  a  Thurstone  rating  of  "4"  correlate  with  a  high 
test  rating.  The  only  rating  in  the  lowest  quintile  is  that  on  the 
memory  test  and  when  this  is  contrasted  with  an  exceptionally  good 
performance  with  the  cylinders,  it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude 
that  this  student  depends  more  on  intelligence  than  on  memory  in 
his  college  work.  Almost  without  exception  ratings  in  the  upper 
quintiles  are  displayed  for  the  tests  which  do  not  stress  language 
ability,  while  lower  ratings  are  found  where  this  factor  is  of  great 
importance. 

No.  14. 

This  record  presents  an  interesting  contrast  with  that  of  student 
No.  13  in  that  the  intellectual  rather  than  the  intelligence  factors 
are  here  stressed.  While  not  quite  so  good  from  the  academic  view- 
point, this  record  shows  a  slightly  higher  rating  for  the  Thurstone 
and  other  mental  tests  than  does  the  preceding  case.  Ratings  of 
"5"  on  the  Ausfrage,  digit  span,  Trabue,  and  memory  tests  indicate 
associability,  language  ability  and  retentiveness,  while  a  rating  in 
the  lowest  quintile  for  the  first  cylinder  trial  implies  comparatively 
poor  intelligence.  A  much  better  record  on  the  second  trial  with  the 
cylinders  shows  trainability,  which,  coupled  with  a  high  memory 
span  and  good  memory,  pictures  a  student  of  more  than  average 
intellect. 

No.  15. 

The  indication  here  is  of  a  man  of  high  general  intelligence  who 
does  not  care  to  apply  himself  to  college  work.  On  the  one  hand 
his  academic  rating  is  mediocre  and  he  has  obtained  merely  passing 
grades  in  psychology,  while  contrasted  with  this  are  Thurstone  and 
competency  ratings  in  the  highest  quintile,  and  a  combined  test 
rating  well  above  the  average.  The  low  rating  on  the  Courtis  test 
is  probably  the  only  score  of  particular  significance,  and  seems  to 
indicate  laziness  and  lack  of  interest.  In  view  of  the  higher  scores 
on  the  other  tests  this  explanation  may  also  hold  for  the  low  rating 
on  definitions.  On  the  whole  the  picture  is  that  of  a  student  with 
real  ability  who  does  not  care  to  exert  himself. 


47 


No.  16. 


In  spite  of  a  good  rating  on  the  Thurstone  test,  this  record 
indicates  an  individual  of  somewhat  less  than  average  ability. 
Although  the  academic  rating  is  fair,  the  competency  rating  and  the 
composite  test  rating  are  both  low.  Ratings  below  the  middle  quin- 
tile  are  found  for  the  Taylor  number  test,  the  digit  and  syllable 
spans,  the  Trabue  and  definitions  tests,  while  only  the  ratings  for  the 
Ausfrage,  Courtis  and  memory  tests  are  better  than  the  average. 
It  seems  likely  that  this  student  supplements  good  retentiveness 
with  more  than  the  usual  degree  of  industry  in  passing  his  college  work. 

No.  17. 

Thurstone  and  competency  ratings  in  the  lowest  quintile  com- 
bined with  the  lowest  composite  test  rating  of  the  group  indicate 
decidedly  inferior  ability  in  this  case.  Eight  of  the  separate  test 
ratings  are  below  the  middle  quintile  and  only  three  are  above. 
Low  ratings  on  the  Thurstone,  Taylor,  Trabue,  Courtis,  opposites 
and  cylinder  tests,  all  of  which  involve  a  definite  speed  factor,  sug- 
gest that  a  slow  rate  of  discharge  is  primarily  responsible  for  the 
poor  test  performances  of  this  individual.  High  ratings  in  the 
digit  span,  description,  and  definitions  tests,  in  all  of  which  the  time 
element  is  relatively  unimportant,  seem  to  bear  out  this  conclusion. 
An  observation  of  the  scores  of  the  three  memory  span  tests  shows 
that  as  the  material  becomes  more  complicated  the  rating  is  lower. 
This  man  evidently  needs  time  to  think,  and  does  well  when  the  time 
is  not  limited.  This  fact  explains  the  lack  of  correlation  between  the 
test  ratings  and  the  academic  record,  which  is  at  least  average, 
and  it  also  emphasizes  the  undue  weight  given  to  the  time  factor  in 
most  mental  tests. 

No.  18. 

This  record  displays  the  interesting  combination  of  a  very 
high  academic  rating  with  mediocre  performance  in  the  various  men- 
tal tests.  The  record  is  quite  comparable  with  that  of  student 
No.  1  with  the  exception  that  in  this  case  nine  of  the  thirteen  test 
results  are  found  in  the  middle  quintile.  High  ratings  in  the  Thur- 
stone and  Courtis  tests  suggest  alertness,  and  this  ability,  in  con- 
junction with  a  good  rating  on  memory,  may  be  partly  responsible 
for  the  success  in  college  work.  It  seems  probable,  however,  that 
some  motivation  factor  which  cannot  be  measured  by  the  test 
results  has  played  an  important  part  in  the  academic  attainments 
of  this  student. 


No.  19. 

In  this  case  the  record,  with  the  exception  of  the  grades  in 
psychology,  is  consistently  above  the  average.  Low  ratings  on  the 
Courtis  and  cylinder  tests  might  suggest  a  slow  rate  of  discharge 
were  it  not  for  a  very  high  rating  on  the  Thurstone  test.  High 
scores  on  the  three  memory  span  tests,  the  Trabue,  definitions,  and 
memory  tests  show  associability,  retentiveness,  and  language  ability, 
which  may  be  looked  upon  as  essential  factors  in  intellectual  develop- 
ment. The  low  rating  on  the  cylinders  hardly  seems  significant  in 
view  of  the  other  test  results,  although  it  may  indicate  a  deficiency 
in  mechanical  as  contrasted  with  mental  ability. 

No.  20. 
This  record  provides  an  interesting  comparison  with  that  of 
student  No.  19.  Although  the  psychology  grades,  competency 
rating,  and  Thurstone  rating  are  identical,  this  student  has  a  some- 
what lower  academic  rating  and  a  correspondingly  lower  composite 
test  rating.  Even  the  ratings  for  the  separate  tests  show  similar 
tendencies,  but  the  scores  for  the  Courtis  and  cylinder  tests  are  lower 
here  than  in  the  preceding  case.  The  most  significant  difference 
between  the  two  records  is  found  in  the  very  low  memory  rating  of 
this  student,  which  places  him  definitely  in  the  mediocre  group. 

No.  21. 
This  record  is  one  of  the  most  consistent  to  be  found  in  the  group 
and  places  the  student  definitely  in  the  fourth  quintile.  The  academic 
rating  is  quite  high,  the  Thurstone  and  competency  ratings  are  both 
"4",  and  the  composite  test  rating  is  well  above  the  average.  The 
separate  test  scores  indicate  little,  since  all  but  two  of  the  ratings  are 
in  the  middle  and  upper  quintile.  Although  the  first  cylinder  trial 
was  slow,  the  second  trial  compensated  for  this  deficiency.  There 
is  no  comment  to  make  on  this  case  other  than  a  desire  that  mental 
tests  might  always  correlate  so  closely  with  academic  standing. 

No.  22 
While  this  record  is,  on  the  whole,  mediocre,  the  academic 
rating  is  somewhat  higher  than  might  be  expected  in  view  of  the 
low  Thurstone  and  competency  ratings.  The  latter  may  possibly  be 
accounted  for  by  the  poor  intelligence  displayed  in  both  cylinder 
performances,  while  good  ratings  on  the  tests  requiring  language 
ability,  and  particularly  on  the  memory  test,  provide  a  satisfactory 
explanation  for  the  fair  academic  rating.  From  the  test  results 
it  seems  probable  that  this  individual  has  to  apply  himself  to  his 
studies  in  order  to  do  passing  work. 


49 

No.  23. 

The  failure  in  Psychology  2  is  the  only  discordant  note  in  an 
otherwise  mediocre  record.  The  composite  test  rating  and  that  for 
the  Thurstone  test  are  about  average  for  the  group,  while  the  com- 
petency rating  is  in  the  fourth  quintile.  The  separate  test  results 
do  not  seem  significant  except  for  a  high  rating  in  memory.  The 
poor  work  in  psychology  must  probably  be  accounted  for  by  lack  of 
interest  or  failure  to  study. 

No.  24. 
The  record  here  is  comparable  with  that  of  student  No.  15  in 
that  a  high  composite  test  rating  is  contrasted  with  a  low  academic 
rating.  In  this  case,  however,  the  discrepancy  is  even  more  marked. 
The  test  rating  is  exceeded  by  only  four  members  of  the  group,  while 
only  two  have  poorer  college  records.  The  separate  test  results 
present  no  solution  to  the  difficulty  since  the  ratings  are  high  with 
only  one  exception.  The  competency  rating  is  "4".  It  seems 
probable  that  this  man  is  not  particularly  interested  in  his  college 
work  and  is  expending  most  of  his  time  and  energy  in  some  kind 
of  outside  activity. 

No.  25. 
In  this  instance  the  record  is  consistently  mediocre.  All  four  of 
the  general  ratings  are  either  in  the  middle  quintile  or  slightly  below 
the  group  average.  The  failure  in  Psychology  1  is  hardly  to  be 
accounted  for  by  the  separate  test  results,  which  display  no  definite 
tendency,  and  was  probably  due  to  lack  of  application,  since  the 
student  was  able  to  pass  the  second  course. 

No.  26. 

The  rather  high  academic  rating  in  this  case  seems  to  contradict 
the  low  Thurstone  and  composite  test  ratings.  The  low  digit  span 
and  the  poor  rating  on  the  memory  test  indicate  that  this  student 
must  be  a  hard  worker  in  order  to  have  received  such  high  grades 
for  his  college  courses.  Good  trainability  as  displayed  in  the  second 
trial  with  the  cylinders  may  be  a  significant  factor  in  his  academic 
work. 

No.  27. 

In  this  case  a  very  high  score  on  the  Thurstone  test  correlates 
well  with  a  high  composite  test  rating  and  a  high  academic  rating. 
" Distinguished' '  grades  in  both  courses  in  psychology  also  indicate 
general  superiority.  A  poor  performance  on  the  second  trial  with  the 
cy finders  which  resulted  in  a  competency  rating  of  only  "3"  is  the 
only  flaw  in  an  otherwise  excellent  record.     Eight  of  the  thirteen 


50 

tests  are  rated  above  the  middle  quintile  and  indicate  nothing  more 
than  an  unusually  high  level  of  general  intelligence. 

No.  28. 
This  record  offers  an  interesting  comparison  with  that  of  student 
No.  27.  The  composite  test  ratings  and  the  competency  ratings  are 
identical  in  the  two  cases,  while  the  academic  ratings  are  very  nearly 
so.  Both  students  received  the  highest  grade  in  both  courses  in 
psychology.  In  this  instance,  however,  the  Thurstone  score  is 
mediocre,  and  the  ratings  for  the  Trabue  and  cylinder  tests  are  in  the 
second  quintile.  The  ratings  on  those  tests  which  stress  language 
ability  are  generally  higher  than  in  the  preceding  case,  while  the 
memory  spans  are  conspicuously  lower.  These  facts  indicate  a 
relatively  low  intelligence  coupled  with  a  rather  high  intellectual 
development.  On  the  whole,  the  student  is  decidedly  superior  to 
the  majority  of  the  group. 

No.  29. 
The  record  in  this  case  must  be  considered  consistently  good 
although  it  can  hardly  be  compared  with  either  of  the  two  preceding 
cases  in  general  excellence.  The  academic  rating  shows  a  "G" 
average  and  the  psychology  grades  rate  the  student  even  higher. 
While  the  Thurstone  rating  is  "4",  the  rating  on  estimated  com- 
petency is  higher  than  that  in  either  of  the  preceding  records.  This 
rating  is  not  substantiated  by  the  results  of  the  separate  tests,  only 
four  of  which  are  found  to  be  above  the  middle  quintile.  These 
seem  to  point  to  intelligence  rather  than  to  intellectual  organization, 
although  it  would  be  unsafe  to  make  any  specific  diagnosis. 

No.  30. 
This  record  displays  a  relatively  high  test  rating  and  a  Thur- 
stone rating  in  the  fourth  quintile  contrasted  with  an  average 
academic  rating  and  unsatisfactory  grades  in  psychology.  While 
the  separate  test  scores  indicate  somewhat  erratic  performances, 
very  high  ratings  on  the  memory  and  cylinder  tests  show  that  this 
individual  has  unusual  ability  in  some  directions.  It  seems  probable 
that  lack  of  interest  or  want  of  application  is  responsible  for  the 
deficiency  in  psychology. 

No.  31. 

The  mediocre  composite  test  rating  in  this  case  does  not  corre- 
late with  the  generally  high  level  of  the  other  ratings,  all  of  which 
are  in  the  fourth  quintile.  Although  the  separate  test  results  are 
distributed  through  the  five  quintiles,  they  show  no  definite  ten- 
dency which  might  be  considered  explanatory.     Possibly  the  high 


51 

degree  of  trainability  displayed  in  the  second  cylinder  trial  is  sig- 
nificant, but  it  seems  likely  that  this  student  either  did  not  take  the 
tests  seriously  or  that  some  strong  motivation  factor  has  entered  into 
his  college  work. 

No.  32. 
This  record  presents  as  great  a  contradiction  as  is  to  be  found 
in  the  whole  group.  While  only  two  students  have  academic  records 
which  exceed  the  rating  in  this  case,  only  three  have  lower  composite 
test  ratings.  Moreover,  the  estimated  competency  rating  is  "2" 
and  the  Thurstone  test  rating  "5".  Only  three  students  have  better 
grades  in  the  two  psychology  courses.  In  the  separate  tests,  low 
ratings  were  received  on  the  Taylor  number,  digit  span,  Trabue, 
differences,  definitions,  and  second  cylinder  trial.  Only  the  syllable 
span  and  memory  tests  were  rated  higher  than  the  middle  quintile, 
the  latter  receiving  the  only  "5"  of  the  series.  It  seems  hardly 
possible  to  explain  the  excellent  academic  record  on  the  basis  of  good 
memory  alone,  and  the  only  conclusion  which  can  be  reached  is  that 
the  test  results  do  not  reflect  the  evident  competency  of  this  student. 

No.  33. 

All  things  taken  into  consideration,  this  is  the  poorest  record  in 
the  group.  The  academic  rating  is  low  and  one  of  the  courses  in 
psychology  was  not  passed.  The  competency  rating  and  that  on 
the  Thurstone  test  are  both  in  the  lowest  quintile,  the  score  on  the 
latter  test  being  the  lowest  made  by  any  of  the  fifty  students.  The 
composite  test  rating  is  one  of  the  lowest  in  the  group,  and  only  two 
of  the  separate  test  results  are  placed  above  the  middle  quintile. 
A  rating  of  "5"  in  the  memory  test  suggests  that  this  ability  may 
have  enabled  the  student  to  stay  in  college.  Low  ratings  on  the 
Taylor,  digit  span,  syllable  span,  Trabue,  differences,  opposites  and 
definitions  tests  and  the  first  trial  with  the  cylinders  indicate  a  very 
general  deficiency.  The  test  results  in  this  case  are  quite  similar 
to  those  in  the  record  of  student  No.  32,  but  seem  here  to  be  really 
significant. 

No.  34. 

In  this  instance,  the  various  ratings  of  the  record  correlate 
well  to  show  better  than  average  competency.  The  academic  rating 
is  good,  the  psychology  grades  very  good,  and  the  competency  rating 
is  in  the  fourth  quintile.  The  Thurstone  score  is  high,  and  while  the 
composite  test  rating  is  only  fair,  the  separate  test  results  show  no 
marked  deficiencies.  Low  ratings  in  the  Ausfrage  and  Taylor  tests 
are  not  particularly  significant,  while  higher  ratings  in  the  digit  span, 
Courtis,  and  memory  tests  and  second  cylinder  trial  indicate  asso- 


52 

ciability,  speed,  retentiveness  and  trainability.     On  the  whole,  the 
record  shows  no  contradictions. 

No.  35. 
This  record  is  consistent  in  so  far  as  the  composite  test  rating, 
the  Thurstone  rating  and  the  competency  rating  are  concerned. 
The  test  rating  is  equaled  only  by  student  No.  2,  and  both  of  the  other 
ratings  place  this  student  in  the  highest  quintile.  In  academic  work, 
however,  only  an  average  rating  is  to  be  found,  and  the  explanation 
must  probably  be  based  on  lack  of  interest  in  studies  or  absorption 
in  other  activities.  High  ratings  on  the  Taylor  number,  digit  span, 
Trabue,  Courtis,  definitions  and  memory  tests,  on  both  trials  with 
the  cylinders,  and  on  the  Thurstone  test  indicate  that  this  student 
has  the  ability  to  do  excellent  college  work  if  he  so  desires. 

No.  36. 
Although  a  number  of  the  separate  test  results  are  missing  in 
this  record,  the  ratings  on  the  Thurstone  test  and  estimated  com- 
petency as  well  as  the  composite  test  rating  indicate  a  rather  high 
level  of  mentality.  The  academic  rating,  however,  is  one  of  the 
lowest  in  the  group  and  shows  that  conditions  and  failures  were 
received  in  a  number  of  courses,  even  though  the  work  in  psychology 
was  somewhat  above  the  average.  The  evidence  seems  fairly  con- 
clusive that  this  man  could  do  better  college  work  if  he  wished  to 
apply  himself.  Interest  in  outside  activities  probably  explains  the 
discrepancy  between  the  test  ratings  and  the  academic  record. 

No.  37. 

With  the  exception  of  a  low  rating  on  the  Thurstone  test,  this 
record  is  consistently  mediocre.  The  academic  rating,  competency 
rating  and  composite  test  rating  all  appear  in  the  middle  quintile. 
A  good  performance  on  the  first  trial  with  the  cylinders,  followed 
by  an  excellent  second  trial,  indicate  intelligence  and  trainability, 
while  a  low  rating  on  the  memory  test  may  explain  the  mediocre 
college  record. 

No.  38. 

The  record  in  this  instance  is  consistently  below  the  average 
for  the  group  and  may  be  considered  typical  of  the  second  quintile. 
The  academic  rating  is  low,  the  psychology  grades  merely  passing, 
the  competency  rating  and  the  Thurstone  rating  are  both  "2",  and 
the  composite  test  rating  decidedly  below  the  average.  Low  ratings 
were  received  on  the  Taylor  number,  idea  span,  description,  and 
Trabue  tests,  while  the  digit  span,  definitions  and  cylinder  tests 
were  rated  above  the  middle  quintile.     No  ratings  in  the  highest 


53 

quintile  appear.  An  analysis  of  these  results  seems  to  indicate 
good  associability  and  intelligence  coupled  with  rather  deficient 
intellectual  organization.  This  man  would  probably  be  more 
successful  in  business  than  in  an  academic  or  professional  vocation. 

No.  39. 
This  record  disputes  with  that  of  student  No.  33  the  distinction 
of  being  the  poorest  in  the  group.  The  fact  that  the  student  was 
excluded  from  the  University  at  the  end  of  the  session  gives  peculiar 
interest  to  this  case.  An  observation  of  the  grades  received  in  college 
courses  discloses  the  significant  fact  that  eight  units  of  work  were 
assigned  a  grade  of  "D",  while  an  equal  number  received  a  "G". 
Eight  units  of  credit  were  merely  "Passed",  conditions  were  given 
for  three  units,  and  the  remaining  eight  units  received  the  grade 
"F".  Passing  grades  were  assigned  for  both  courses  in  psychology. 
This  unusual  distribution  of  grades  suggests  specific  ability  along 
certain  lines  with  marked  variations  in  interest.  The  student  would 
probably  have  received  " Distinguished"  grades  in  all  of  his  college 
work  if  he  had  been  allowed  free  election  of  courses.  Low  ratings  on 
the  Thurstone  and  Courtis  tests  show  that  he  cannot  think  quickly, 
while  poor  scores  in  the  Trabue  and  memory  tests  indicate  deficiency 
in  imagination  and  retentiveness.  High  ratings  on  the  Taylor 
number  and  cylinder  tests  show  that  there  is  no  deficiency  in  the  rate 
of  discharge  of  energy,  and  that  distribution  of  attention  and  intelli- 
gence are  both  above  the  average.  It  seems  probable  that  this  man, 
now  being  free  to  follow  his  own  inclinations,  will  be  successful  in  the 
vocation  which  he  chooses.  The  case  is  particularly  interesting  as  an 
example  of  the  influence  of  special  abilities  and  of  motivation  in  the 
behavior  of  the  individual. 

No.  40. 
In  this  case  a  very  low  competency  rating  is  contradicted  by 
a  composite  test  rating  only  slightly  below  the  average  and  Thur- 
stone and  academic  ratings  in  the  fourth  quintile.  The  competency 
rating  was  doubtless  influenced  by  very  poor  performances  in  both 
cylinder  trials,  but  this  deficiency  in  intelligence  is  compensated  for 
by  high  ratings  in  the  syllable  and  idea  spans,  Courtis,  definitions 
and  memory  tests.  In  other  words  this  student  has  the  associability, 
alertness,  language  ability  and  retentiveness  necessary  to  do  good 
college  work.  It  is  possible,  also,  that  lack  of  interest  in  the  tests 
may  have  affected  the  significance  of  the  results. 

No.  41. 
This  is  a  consistently  mediocre  record  with  the  exception  of 
the  psychology  grades,  which  are  slightly  above  the  average,  and 


54 

the  competency  rating,  which  is  very  high.  The  academic  rating  is 
slightly  below  the  median  and  the  composite  test  rating  is  median 
for  the  group.  The  Thurstone  score  is  placed  in  the  middle  quintile. 
High  ratings  are  shown  for  the  Ausfrage,  Courtis,  and  first  cylinder 
trial.  The  latter,  however,  is  offset  by  a  very  poor  performance  in 
the  second  trial  with  the  cylinders.  Low  ratings  also  appear  for  the 
Taylor  number,  digit  and  syllable  spans,  Trabue,  and  memory  tests. 
These  results  indicate  rather  poor  general  intelligence  and  suggest 
that  the  competency  rating  is  too  high. 

No.  42. 

Every  one  of  the  principal  ratings  in  this  record  occurs  in  the 
highest  quintile,  and  the  student  must  be  ranked  definitely  with  the 
leaders  of  the  group.  High  ratings  on  the  Ausfrage,  description, 
Trabue,  and  memory  tests  and  on  both  cylinder  trials  show  good 
observation,  imagination,  retentiveness  and  intelligence.  A  low 
rating  on  the  digit  span  is  neutralized  by  a  high  idea  span.  Other 
low  ratings  on  the  Courtis  and  opposites  tests  do  not  seem  significant. 
On  the  whole  the  record  is  unusually  consistent  and  justifies  the  high 
competency  rating. 

No.  43. 

Although  the  composite  test  rating  in  this  case  is  about  average 
for  the  group,  the  academic  rating  is  decidedly  inferior.  The  com- 
petency rating  is  the  lowest  given  to  any  member  of  the  class,  and 
is  based  on  very  poor  performances  with  the  cylinders.  Although 
this  student  seems  to  lack  intelligence,  high  ratings  were  obtained  in 
the  Ausfrage,  Trabue,  and  definitions  tests.  Low  ratings  for  the 
Taylor  number,  digit  span,  and  Courtis  tests  indicate  a  consistently 
poor  performance  in  those  tests  which  do  not  involve  language  ability. 
The  good  ratings  in  the  strictly  intellectual  tests  suggest  that  outside 
activities  are  responsible  for  the  low  academic  rating. 

No.  44. 

This  record  seems  to  be  typical  of  the  fourth  quintile.  The 
academic  record  shows  a  preponderance  of  "Good"  grades,  and  this 
mark  was  received  for  both  courses  in  psychology.  The  competency 
rating  is  "4"  and  the  Thurstone  rating  "3".  The  composite  test 
rating  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  group,  although  fifth  quintile  ratings 
appear  only  for  the  Ausfrage  test  and  the  first  cylinder  trial.  Other 
test  ratings  show  a  high  level  of  general  intelligence  with  no  sig- 
nificant disabilities. 


55 

No.  45. 
An  academic  record  in  the  fourth  quintile  is  accompanied  in 
this  case  by  a  Thurstone  score  in  the  middle  quintile,  a  competency 
rating  in  the  second,  and  a  composite  test  rating  in  the  lowest  quintile 
of  the  group.  This  unanimous  absence  of  correlation  is  also  shown 
in  the  separate  test  results  where  ratings  in  all  five  quintiles  appear. 
A  high  rating  on  the  Taylor  number  test  suggests  good  distribution 
of  attention,  but  even  this  ability  must  have  been  lacking  in  the 
cylinder  performances.  The  test  results  show  no  definite  tendency, 
but  display  a  low  level  of  general  intelligence.  The  high  academic 
rating  notwithstanding,  this  student  falls  below  the  middle  quintile 
of  the  group  in  competency. 

No.  46. 

The  lowest  academic  rating  in  the  group  is  displayed  by  this 
senior,  who,  nevertheless,  was  able  to  graduate  with  his  class.  While 
the  Thurstone  score  is  poor,  the  competency  rating  and  the  com- 
posite test  rating  are  both  high.  The  separate  test  results  are  low 
for  digit  and  idea  spans,  but  high  for  most  of  the  other  tests  with 
exceptionally  good  performances  on  the  cylinder  test.  This  student 
was  evidently  doing  no  more  college  work  than  was  necessary  to  ob- 
tain his  degree,  and  was  probably  interested  in  outside  activities. 

No.  47. 
The  competency  rating,  composite  test  rating,  and  academic 
rating  agree  in  placing  this  student  in  the  second  quintile.  The 
rating  on  the  Thurstone  test  is  very  high,  and  the  grades  in  psychology 
the  poorest  in  the  group,  consisting  of  an  "N"  for  the  first  course 
and  a  "Failure"  for  the  second.  High  ratings  on  the  Thurstone 
and  Courtis  suggest  a  rather  quick  mind  when  familiar  operations 
are  involved,  while  the  very  low  ratings  on  the  cylinder  test  indicate 
inability  to  meet  a  new  problem  successfully.  Since  the  subject- 
matter  of  the  courses  in  psychology  is  quite  unlike  that  of  most 
college  courses,  the  inability  of  the  student  to  adapt  himself  to  the 
new  situation  is  probably  the  cause  of  his  deficient  work  in  this 
subject.  Although  the  result  for  the  memory  test  is  missing,  a  high 
rating  in  that  ability  may  be  predicted. 

No.  48. 
In  this  record  the  composite  test  rating,  the  competency  rating 
and  the  Thurstone  rating  indicate  a  very  high  level  of  general  intelli- 
gence.    The  academic  rating,  however,  is  far  below  the  average  for 
the  group.    Of  the  separate  test  results,  only  two  fall  below  the  middle 


56 

quintile.  The  low  ratings  on  the  Trabue  and  Courtis  tests  are  diffi- 
cult to  explain  in  the  light  of  the  other  test  ratings,  five  of  which  are 
in  the  highest  quintile.  Excellent  associability,  language  ability, 
retentiveness,  and  intelligence  are  displayed  in  the  various  test  scores, 
and  the  only  explanation  of  the  relatively  poor  college  grades  seems 
to  lie  in  lack  of  interest  or  absorption  in  outside  activities. 

No.  49. 
Although  the  Thurstone  score,  the  competency  rating,  the  com- 
posite test  rating,  and  the  grades  in  psychology  agree  in  placing  this 
student  below  the  middle  quintile,  the  academic  rating  is  the  median 
for  the  group.  As  is  frequently  the  case  where  this  situation  is 
encountered,  the  rating  on  the  memory  test  is  high.  In  addition  to 
this  test  only  the  Ausfrage  and  the  syllable  span  were  rated  higher 
than  the  middle  quintile,  while  eight  of  the  thirteen  tests  fell  below 
that  level.  It  seems  certain  that  more  than  the  usual  amount  of 
industry  is  expended  by  this  individual  on  his  college  work. 

No.  50. 
This  record  is  quite  similar  to  that  of  student  No.  49  with  the 
exception  that  the  composite  test  rating  is  slightly  lower  and  the 
academic  rating  somewhat  higher  than  in  the  preceding  case.  Here, 
however,  the  Thurstone  rating  is  high  and  the  competency  rating 
and  psychology  grades  average.  Of  the  separate  test  results,  only 
the  rating  on  the  memory  test  is  in  the  highest  quintile.  The  ratings 
for  the  Taylor  number,  description,  Trabue,  Courtis  and  first  cylinder 
tests  are  in  the  lowest  quintile.  The  second  trial  with  the  cylinders 
indicates  good  trainability,  which  with  the  assistance  of  an  unusually 
good  memory  may  account  for  the  high  academic  rating.  On  the 
other  hand,  lack  of  effort  in  the  tests  may  be  responsible  for  the  low 
composite  test  rating,  and  is  suggested  by  the  high  score  on  the 
Thurstone  test. 

Summary. 

A  scrutiny  of  the  analyses  of  the  fifty  individual  records  shows 
that  these  may  be  separated  into  two  general  groups.  In  twenty-six 
cases  the  correlation  between  the  various  ratings  is  close  enough  to 
present  fairly  conclusive  evidence  of  the  relative  performance  level 
of  the  student.  These  cases,  in  turn,  naturally  fall  into  five  classes 
corresponding  roughly  with  the  points  of  a  five-division  scale,  which 
may  be  referred  to  here  as  very  good,  good,  medium,  poor,  and  very 
poor.  Seven  records  are  so  consistently  high  as  to  warrant  a  place 
in  the  first  group,  while  five  more  are  distinctly  better  than  the 
average  and  may  be  considered  "good".     Eight  cases  occur  in  the 


57 

"medium"  class,  and  of  the  six  which  fall  below  this  level  two  are 
"poor"  and  four  show  such  a  general  inferiority  as  to  justify  place- 
ment in  the  lowest  group.  The  twenty-four  remaining  records, 
which  display  a  decided  lack  of  correlation  between  the  various 
major  ratings,  exhibit  two  opposing  tendencies.  In  fourteen  cases 
the  academic  rating  is  higher  than  would  be  predicted  from  the  test 
results,  while  in  the  ten  remaining  cases  the  Thurstone  score,  com- 
petency rating  and  composite  test  rating  would  seem  to  indicate 
better  scholastic  ability  than  is  displayed  in  the  academic  rating  and 
psychology  grades.  The  following  summary  shows  the  classification 
of  each  individual  record. 

Classification  of  Individual  Records. 

I.  Cases  showing  general  correlation  of  ratings: 

Very  good 2,  13,  14,  27,  28,  42,  44 

Good 11,  18,  19,  21,  29 

Medium 4,  5,  6,  20,  23,  37,  40,  41 

Poor 22,47 

Very  poor 3,  33,  38,  39 

II.  Cases  where  correlation  is  lacking: 

High  academic,  medium  mental 1,9,  12,  31,  34 

High  academic,  low  mental 26,  32,  45 

Medium  academic,  low  mental 8,  10,  16, 17,  49,  50 

High  mental,  medium  academic 15,  30,  35 

High  mental,  low  academic 24,  36,  46,  48 

Medium  mental,  low  academic 7.  25, 43 

Although  in  some  cases  the  evidence  is  not  so  clear  cut  as  the 
summary  above  may  seem  to  indicate,  the  classification  nevertheless 
is  justified  by  the  data  at  hand.  It  also  seems  reasonable  to  attribute 
the  absence  of  correlation  shown  in  the  second  group  of  records  to 
variations  in  motivation  and  other  external  factors  which  have  not 
as  yet  lent  themselves  to  quantitative  measurement.  Of  two  men 
who  have  the  same  composite  test  rating  and  who  may  be  assumed 
to  possess  equal  competency,  one  may  be  intensely  interested  in  his 
studies  and  impelled  by  a  consuming  ambition  to  gain  the  greatest 
possible  benefit  from  his  college  course,  while  the  other  is  content  to 
do  only  the  amount  of  work  necessary  to  fulfil  the  minimum  scholastic 
requirements  and  seeks  to  excel  in  athletic  or  social  activities.  Again, 
the  first  student  may  be  devoting  all  of  his  time  and  effort  to  college 
work,  while  the  second  is  compelled  to  expend  much  of  his  energy 


58 

in  supporting  himself.  Certainly  no  series  of  mental  tests  will 
correlate  closely  with  academic  standing  until  some  satisfactory 
method  of  evaluating  these  factors  external  to  competency  has  been 
devised.  At  present  it  is  possible  to  do  no  more  than  call  attention 
to  the  lack  of  correlation  and  attempt  to  explain  the  discrepancies 
in  the  most  logical  manner. 

Conclusions. 

(1)  The  psychologist  should  engage  in  the  analysis  and  evalu- 
ation of  the  "ability"  components  of  the  college  student's  competency 
rather  than  in  the  correlation  of  general  intelligence  tests  with  aca- 
demic grades. 

(2)  The  abilities  required  for  scholastic  success,  under  the 
present  methods  of  college  instruction  and  grading,  are  not  all  of  the 
abilities  comprising  individual  competency.  Hence  the  failure  of 
test  results  to  correlate  with  college  grades.  The  better  the  general 
intelligence  test,  the  smaller  will  be  the  correlation  with  academic 
standing. 

(3)  College  grades  will  provide  more  satisfactory  material 
for  statistical  treatment  when  each  institution  adopts  a  standard 
distribution  of  grades  and  provides  for  supervision  by  some  adminis- 
trative officer. 

(4)  Tests  for  college  students  must  be  devised  which  place  less 
dependence  upon  time  measurement,  which  have  a  higher  reliability 
coefficient,  and  which  are  of  greater  difficulty,  than  most  of  the  tests 
now  available. 

(5)  Motivation  and  environmental  and  economic  conditions 
have  not  as  yet  yielded  to  quantitative  treatment.  Until  they  do, 
it  will  not  be  possible  to  predict  with  accuracy  the  success  of  a  student 
in  college  or  in  any  other  field  of  endeavor. 

(6)  Test  ratings  such  as  those  presented  here  should  be  made 
available  to  deans,  faculty  advisers,  and  committees  dealing  with 
scholastic  deficiency.  In  many  instances  this  information  would 
be  of  value  to  the  student,  also,  providing  him  with  educational  or 
vocational  guidance. 

(7)  A  "follow  up"  of  the  fifty  students  who  have  provided  the 
material  for  this  study  will  be  published  at  some  future  date. 

(8)  Only  after  many  investigations  are  at  hand  with  diagnoses 
carefully  followed  up  over  a  period  of  years  will  psychological  diag- 
nosis and  orthogenic  guidance  become  as  reliable  for  the  normal 
individual  as  it  is  now  for  the  subnormal. 


59 

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1.  Wissler,  Clark.  The  Correlation  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests. 
Psychological  Review  Monograph  Supplement  8,  1901,  No.  6,  1-61. 

2.  Calfee,  M.  College  Freshmen  and  Four  General  Intelligence  Tests. 
Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  1913,  4,  223-231. 

3.  Rowland,  E.,  and  Lowden,  G.  Report  of  Psychological  Tests  at  Reed 
College.    Journal  of  Experimental  Psychology,  1916,  1,  211-217. 

4.  Waugh,  Karl  T.  A  New  Mental  Diagnosis  of  the  College  Student. 
New  York  Times  Magazine  Supplement,  January  2,  1916. 

5.  Kitson,  H.  D.  Scientific  Study  of  the  College  Student.  Psychological 
Monograph  No.  98,  1917.    Pp.  81. 

6.  King,  I.,  and  McCrory,  J.  Freshmen  Tests  at  the  State  University  of 
Iowa.    Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  1918,  9,  32-46. 

7.  Caldwell,  H.  H.  Adult  Tests  of  the  Stanford  Revision  Applied  to 
College  Students.    Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  1919,  10,  477-488. 

8.  Rogers,  A.  L.  Mental  Tests  as  a  Means  of  Selecting  and  Classifying 
College  Students.    Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  1920,  4,  181-192. 

9.  Humpstone,  H.  J.  Some  Aspects  of  the  Memory  Span  Test.  Experi- 
mental Studies  in  Psychology  and  Pedagogy,  7.  Psychological  Clinic  Press, 
Philadelphia,  1917.    Pp.  31. 

10.  Terman,  L.  M.  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence.  Houghton-Mifflin 
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11.  Trabue,  M.  R.  Completion-Test  Language  Scales,  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University,  1916.     Pp.  118. 

12.  Courtis,  S.  A.  The  Courtis  Standard  Tests.  Department  of  Co-oper- 
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13.  Whipple,  G.  M.  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests,  Part  II. 
Warwick  and  York,  Baltimore,  1915.    Pp.  336. 

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